Abstract
The Egyptian cotton leafworm Spodoptera littoralis (Boisduval) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is a pervasive and highly polyphagous insect pest. As S. littoralis has developed resistance to major classes of conventional insecticides and the use of these insecticides has caused negative impacts on the ecosystems, it is necessary to search for eco-friendly, cost-effective, and sustainable agents to control. This can be achieved by identifying the preferred host plant. The present study aimed at evaluating the impacts of four host plants– castor bean, tomato, potato, and cucumber on the various life-history traits and nutritional indices of S. littoralis. The concentrations of nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorous in the tested host plants were quantified. Newly hatched larvae were divided into four groups. Each group was fed only on one type of the four tested host plants until pre-pupal stage. Then, the life-history traits and nutritional indices were determined. Larvae fed on castor bean showed the highest adult emergence, weight of full-grown larvae, number of eggs per female, and egg-hatch percent, food consumption, relative growth rate, and food utilization efficiencies. Whereas, larvae fed on cucumber showed the lowest egg-hatch percent, food consumption, relative growth rate, and food utilization efficiencies. There was a positive correlation between nitrogen and phosphorous concentrations in the tested host plants and larval weight, with the highest concentrations in castor bean. Castor bean was the most preferred host plant.
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
Introduction
The Egyptian cotton leaf worm Spodoptera littoralis (Boisduval) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is found in Africa, Mediterranean Europe, and Middle East countries (CABI 2022). In Egypt, it is one of the most important pests of cotton Gossypium herbaceum; the key economic field crop in this country. Furthermore, about 132 host plant species belonging to 45 families, including economically important field crops (e.g., corn Zea mays and wheat Triticum aestivum) and vegetable crops (e.g., lettuce Lactuna sativa, tomato Solanum lycopersicum, potato Solanum tuberosum, and sweet potato Ipomoea batatas), besides ornamental trees (e.g., cotton rose Hibiscus mutabilis and roses Rosa) have been recorded as primary host plants of S. littoralis (CABI 2022).
Several studies have been carried out to demonstrate the effects of host plant types on the different life-history traits of S. littoralis (Al-Shannaf 2011; Mohamed et al. 2019; Ismail 2020; Hemmati et al. 2022; Mousavi et al. 2023). Population performance and growth of herbivorous insects are affected by the nutritional contents/ biochemical attributes of host plants (Ismail 2020; Hemmati et al. 2022; Shirinbeik Mohajer et al. 2022). The identification of insect biology, host preference, and behavior are crucial to find economically and ecologically sustainable solutions to the problems caused by herbivorous insects (Behmer 2009). From the applied point of view, biological studies help in the application of the suitable insecticide at the right time (Xue et al. 2010; Nandhini et al. 2023). Moreover, understanding the diversity of insect responses to different host species represents a key challenge for the development of durable pest control strategies (Després et al. 2007; Hemmati et al. 2012; Cabezas et al. 2013; Kianpour et al. 2014). The management of polyphagous and mobile pests requires pest management systems that focus not only on one major seasonal crop on a single field or farm, but also on wide-area cropping systems (Abel et al. 2007; Wu 2007; Herde 2009). From the basic point of view, biological studies aid in the development of detailed simulation models and may help in the construction of life tables and pest forecasting (Naranjo and Ellsworth 2005; He et al. 2021).
Survival, development, and reproduction of phytophagous insects are considerably affected by the primary and secondary chemical compositions of host plants; hence, food consumption and utilization depend on both plant quality and insect nutritional performance (Scriber and Slansky 1981; Singh and Mullick 1997). The factors determining nutrient availability for growth and maintenance over a given period of development are the amount and type of food consumed and the efficiencies of its utilization (Browne and Raubenheimer 2003). Like other insect orders, the balance of nutrients in many lepidopterans is important. Lepidopteran insects respond to unsuitable diets in diverse ways, such as altering the amount of ingested food, switching from one food source to another, and/or regulating the efficiency of the nutrients (Genc 2006). Food utilization efficiency reflects the quality and the quantity of food consumed (Naseri et al. 2010; Baghery et al. 2013), which may greatly affect insect fitness, such as development, survivorship, reproduction, and life table parameters (Scriber and Slansky 1981; Tsai and Wang 2001; Kim and Lee 2002). Study of insect nutrition is significant in providing critical information for economic exploitation, management of pest insects, and clarifying the relationship of energy among the communities (Awmack and Leather 2002; Babic et al. 2008). Moreover, studies on the consumption, digestion and utilization of food plants by insects are important both from basic and applied points of view. They provide information on the quantitative loss brought about by the pests (Jooyandeh et al. 2018). Analysis of the nutritional indices can provide an understanding of the behavioral and physiological bases of insect-plant interactions (Lazarevic and Peric-Mataruga 2003). A few studies have been carried out concerning the effects of different host plants on food consumption and utilization of S. littoralis (Gacemi et al. 2019; Ismail 2020; Mousavi et al. 2023).
Life table parameters are important in the measurement of population growth capacity of species under specified conditions. These parameters are also used as indices of population growth rates responding to selected conditions and as bioclimatic indices in assessing the potential of a pest population growth in a new area (Southwood and Henderson 2000). Fertility life tables are appropriate to study the dynamics of insect populations (Maia et al. 2000). Life table studies have several applications, including analyzing population stability and structure, estimating extinction probabilities, predicting life history evolution, predicting outbreaks in pest species, and examining the dynamics of colonizing or invading species (Haghani et al. 2006). Life table information may also be useful in constructing population models (Carey 2001) and understanding interactions with other insect pests and natural enemies (Omer et al. 1996). A few studies have been conducted to elucidate the effects of host plants on the life tables of S. liitoralis (Makkar et al. 2015; Abd-Allah and Ahmed 2022; Hemmati et al. 2022). Based on the pest management perspective, the life tables are essential to determine the most vulnerable pest stage (i.e., the stage which suffers the highest mortality) to make time-based application of insecticides (Singh and Singh 2022).
The extensive use of conventional insecticides for the management of S. littoralis has resulted in development of resistance to major classes of pesticides (Smagghe et al. 1999) and can have negative impacts on the environment (Pathak et al. 2022). Given the emergence of resistance and environmental hazards, it is necessary to investigate alternative pest management approaches that are more cost-effective and sustainable than conventional insecticides. Identifying the host preference is an eco-friendly approach within a framework of integrated pest management (La Rossa et al. 2013).
In the current study, we investigated the different biological parameters and nutritional indices of S. littoralis fed on four host plants, viz., castor bean, tomato, potato, and cucumber. We also quantified the concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium in these host plants. The current study could help in identifying the host preference of S. littoralis; thus, the development of sustainable control strategy against this pest.
Materials and methods
Insects
A stock colony of S. littoralis was reared in the laboratories of the Plant Protection Research Institute, Dokki, Giza at 27 ± 2 °C, 65 ± 5% relative humidity and a 16-h light: 8-h dark photoperiod, without exposure to insecticides or pathogens, according to Shaurub et al. (2023). Larvae were fed on fresh leaves of castor bean Ricinus communis, while adults were fed on a 10% sucrose solution.
Host plants
Four host plants were tested in this study, castor bean (R. communis; Family: Euphorbiaceae), tomato (S. lycopersicum; Family: Solanaceae), potato (S. tuberosum; Family: Solanaceae) and cucumber (Cucumis sativus; Family: Cucurbitaceae). These plants were selected because (i) they are primary host plants of S. littoralis (CABI 2022), (ii) there is a paucity of data on their effects on the life-history traits and nutritional indices of S. littoralis, (iii) although castor bean is a wild plant, it is the authenticated host plant for rearing S. littoralis in the laboratory, and (iv) tomato, potato, and cucumber are the most important vegetable crops in Egypt as they are involved in many food industries (Egyptian Chamber of Food Industries, Personal Communication). Fresh and fully expanded leaves of these plants were used as the diet for S. littoralis larvae.
All agricultural operations for the cultivation of tomato, potato, and cucumber were performed according to the traditional local agricultural management practices and the recommendations of the Ministry of Agriculture. They were cultivated without exposure to insecticides. Briefly, tomato seedlings were transplanted on ridges of 70 cm width with a spacing of 30 cm in the row. At soil preparation, the compost was applied two weeks before sowing at a rate of 20 m3 per feddan (fed) (1 fed = 4200 m2). The plants were irrigated every week during the growing season. Potato tubers were divided into pieces (∼ 40.0 g weight). Before planting, all plots received calcium superphosphate (15% P2O5) at a rate of 100 kg per fed and plant compost at a rate of 15.0 m3 per fed. Urea (46.5% nitrogen) was used for nitrogen fertilization at a rate of 150 kg per fed in two equal doses where the first and second doses were added 30 and 60 days after planting, respectively. Also, the traditional potassium fertilization was conducted using potassium sulfate (48% K2O) at a rate of 50.0 kg per fed 60 days after planting. Summer potatoes required 10–12 irrigations, while winter potatoes required 6–8 irrigations. The initial irrigation of summer crop was administered 18–21 days after planting, and subsequent irrigations were applied as needed in response to prevailing weather conditions and soil type. At soil preparation for cucumber planting, the compost was applied two weeks before sowing at a rate of 0.2 m3 per plot (15 m2). The plants were irrigated every week during the growing season. As castor is a wild plant and naturally grows, no information is available concerning its planting. Castor bean is a wild plant that naturally grows near the streams without exposure to insecticides.
Biological studies
Newly hatched larvae of S. littoralis were collected from the stock culture and divided into four groups, with 50 larvae each. Each group was fed on one type only of the tested four host plants (castor bean, tomato, potato, and cucumber). Larvae were released into a clean container (20 × 15 × 15 cm) covered with a piece of muslin cloth for ventilation. Larvae were fed daily on fresh leaves until pupation. Four replicates were conducted per each treatment. Two-day-old pupae were sexed and kept in rearing jars (15 cm in diameter, 20 cm in depth) till adult emergence. Newly emerged unmated moths were divided into 10 pairs, with 1 ♂ × 1 ♀ each. Each pair was transferred to a glass jar (7 cm in diameter, 10 cm in depth) covered with a piece of muslin cloth and provided with a small branch of oleander Nerium oleander as an oviposition medium (Shaurub et al. 2023). Moths were fed on a 10% fresh sucrose solution. The adults were monitored daily for mortality and oviposition, and number of egg masses laid by each female were collected and counted twice daily until the female died. Egg masses obtained from each treatment were observed daily for hatching to estimate the hatch percent.
Nutritional indices
Nutritional indices were estimated using 4th, 5th, and 6th -instar larvae of S. littoralis as they were easier to measure than the primary instars (Shaurub et al. 2020). Under the above-mentioned laboratory conditions, the developmental times of these instars are 2, 2, and 3 days, respectively (Shaurub et al. 2020).
Newly molted weighed 4th -instar larvae were starved for 10 h and released into a clean container (20 × 15 × 15 cm) covered with a piece of muslin cloth for ventilation and supplied with weighed leaves of each host plant. Rearing containers were cleaned daily and consumed leaves were replaced by fresh weighed leaves. To minimize experimental errors often associated in calculating the nutritional indices, enough food was supplied so that at least 80% of the available food was consumed during the experiment (Schmidt and Reese 1986). The weights of larvae (4th, 5th, and 6th instars) were recorded daily before and after feeding until they finished feeding and reached the pre-pupal stage. The initial fresh food and the food and feces remaining at the end of each experiment were weighed daily. The quantity of food ingested was determined by subtracting the diet remaining at the end of each experiment from the total weight of diet provided. To estimate the actual loss of moisture, which was used for calculating the corrected weight of consumed leaves, fresh leaves were kept in a similar rearing cup under the same experimental conditions. Each treatment was replicated four times, with 50 larvae each.
Food consumption and utilization were calculated according to the equations of Waldbauer (1968) as follows:
where:
A = fresh mean weight of larvae during the feeding period (mg)
E = fresh mass of feces (mg)
F = fresh weight of food ingested (mg)
G = fresh weight gain of larvae at the end of the feeding period (mg)
T = duration of the feeding period (days)
Phytochemical analysis
The concentrations of nitrogen (Muñoz-Huerta et al. 2013), potassium (Liu et al. 2018), and phosphorous (Liu et al. 2018) were estimated in castor bean, tomato, potato, and cucumber leaves. Each nutrient was replicated four times. Percentage concentration of each nutrient was calculated.
Statistical analysis
All datasets were first assessed for normality using the Shapiro-Wilk test (Shapiro and Wilk 1965), and subsequently expressed as the mean ± standard error (SE) for analysis. Data of biological, nutritional, and phytochemical studies were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) for each variable among the four tested host plants. When the ANOVA statistics were significant, the means of each variable among the four tested host plants were separated by Tuckey’s test. Pearson’s correlation coefficient test between the larval weight and the amount of nutrients in each host plant was conducted. Significance level was set at α = 0.05. All statistical calculations were conducted using IBM-SPSS Statistics, v. 25 (IBM, Armonk, New York, NY, USA).
Results
Life-history traits
Table 1 shows the effects of castor bean, tomato, potato, and cucumber on certain life-history traits of S. littoralis. Developmental times of larvae fed on castor bean, tomato, potato, and cucumber were not significantly affected, with the developmental time in case of tomato was shorter than that in case of castor bean, potato, and cucumber by 10.93, 12.83, and 12.37%, respectively. Similarly, the tested host plants did not affect the developmental times of surviving pupae, with the shortest pupal developmental time (13.0 days) in case of castor bean. Developmental times of pupae that survived larvae reared on tomato, potato, and cucumber were approximately similar to each other (15.2–15.4 days). Weights of full-grown larvae were significantly affected by the host plants (P < 0.05), with the largest weight in case of larvae fed on castor bean (650.8 mg) and the smallest weight in case of cucumber (300.7 mg). Weight of full-grown larvae in case of tomato (450.5 mg) and potato (450.9 mg) were approximately similar to each other. Adult emergence was dramatically decreased when larvae were reared on tomato, potato, and cucumber (46.7, 40.2 and 23.8%, respectively) compared to that in case of rearing on castor bean (95.2%). Treatment with castor bean, tomato, potato, and cucumber significantly affected adult longevity of both sexes (P < 0.05), with the longest female longevity (7.1 days) and male longevity (6.1 days) in case of castor bean and potato, respectively. The number of eggs deposited per female (fecundity) were also significantly affected by the types of the tested host plants (P < 0.05). The highest number of eggs (480 eggs/female) and the lowest number of eggs (170 eggs/female) were deposited by females that survived larvae fed on castor bean and tomato, respectively. Fertility (% egg-hatch) was also drastically affected by the host plants. The highest fertility (98.1%) and the lowest fertility (40.0%) were attained in case of females that survived larvae fed on castor bean and cucumber, respectively.
Food consumption and utilization
The data of nutritional indices of 4th, 5th, and 6th -instar larvae of S. littoralis were not consistent with each other (Tables 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6). The 6th -instar larvae fed on castor bean consumed higher food compared to those fed on tomato, potato, and cucumber. Overall, during the development of 4th, 5th, and 6th -instar larvae, the lowest food consumed was attained in case of feeding on tomato (Table 2). During the development of the 6th -instar larvae, the highest RGR was obtained in case of feeding on castor bean, whereas the lowest RGR was obtained in case of feeding on tomato, potato, and cucumber. The RGR values of 1-day-old, 2-day-old, and 3-day-old 6th -instars fed on tomato, potato, and cucumber did not change among these host plants for each age, separately (Table 3). The highest AD values were observed in 6th instars fed on potato, followed by castor bean, tomato, and finally cucumber. In contrast, the lowest AD values were recorded in the 4th instars fed on castor bean (Table 4). In case of late 4th and 5th instars (2-day-old instars), the highest ECI values were found on castor bean. In contrast, early 4th and 5th instars (1-day-old instars) exerted the lowest AD values in case of feeding on castor bean and cucumber, respectively. Full-grown larvae (6th -instars) showed the highest ECI values versus the four tested host plants. In a descending order, ECI on castor bean > ECI on tomato > ECI on potato > ECI on cucumber (Table 5). The highest ECD values of full-grown larvae were obtained in case of feeding on castor bean, followed by tomato, potato, and finally cucumber; a pattern which was similar to that of the ECI of full-grown larvae. During the development of 4th and 5th -instar larvae, the highest ECD values were in case of 2-day-old 4th -instars and 1-day-old 5th -instars fed on castor bean (Table 6).
Host plant nutrients
Overall, castor bean was considered the most nutritive host plant as it contained the highest concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorous. In contrast, tomato was the least nutritive host as it contained the lowest concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium (Fig. 1).
Pearson’s correlation coefficient revealed a positive correlation between nitrogen concentration and weight of S. littoralis larvae (r = 0.603, P = 0.013), followed by phosphorous concentration (r = 0.595, P = 0.015). In contrast, there was a negative correlation between potassium concentration and larval weight (r =– 0.526, P = 0.037). The most effective variables were nitrogen concentration with larval weight (R2 = 0.364, F = 7.998, P = 0.013). By the equation, larval weight (mg) = 255.99 + 0.6 nitrogen concentration.
Discussion
Quality and quantity of food consumed by insect species directly influence their host preferences and affect their biological, physiological, and behavioral characteristics (Nation 2002; Golizadeh et al. 2009; Cabezas et al. 2013). The current study clearly shows that S. littoralis performed differently in larval and pupal developmental times, larval weight, pupal survival, adult longevity, fecundity and fertility when castor bean, tomato, potato, and cucumber were offered as the food plants for larvae. In accord with the obtained findings, Mohamed et al. (2019) reported that the shortest larval and pupal developmental times, and the highest number of deposited eggs were obtained for S. littoralis fed on clover and broad bean. However, Ismail (2020) showed that the highest larval weight, adult emergence, number of deposited eggs per female, and egg-hatch percentage of S. littoralis were recorded in case of feeding on cabbage compared to clover and broad bean. da Silva et al. (2017a) showed that soybean and cotton were the most suitable hosts for development and oviposition of Spodoptera eridania and Spodoptera cosmioides compared to oat, wheat, and maize. Xu et al. (2010) found that cowpea was the most suitable host plant for development of Spodoptera litura, based on the shortest larval and pupal developmental times, compared to tobacco, Chinese cabbage, and sweet potato. Although the lowest pupation rate was recorded in case of feeding on sweet potato, the highest number of eggs deposited were recorded at this host plant. Zhang et al. (2021) demonstrated that rearing Spodoptera exigua on asparagus lettuce resulted in the highest survival rate and the shortest larval developmental time. The vice versa for larvae reared on sweet peppers. Effects of host plants on the various biological features of Spodoptera frugiperda have been reported by several authors (da Silva et al. 2017b; Diédhiou et al. 2021; Maharani1 et al. 2021; Al-Ayat et al. 2022; Altaf et al. 2022; Gopalakrishnan 2022; Nandhini et al. 2023).
Fecundity and fertility of S. littoralis appear to be dependent on the larval weight. Greenberg et al. (2001) and Syed and Abro (2003) found a significant relationship between fecundity and pupal weight of herbivore lepidopterans surviving larvae fed on different host plants. Shahout et al. (2011) elucidated that weight and length of ovaries of S. litura were affected by the host plants. The development of the lepidopteran reproductive system is dependent on nutrients acquired during their lifetime (Johansson 1964). Taylor and Sands (2009) reported that the number of deposited eggs by the herbivore lepidopteran species Samea multiplicalis were directly influenced by the nitrogen concentration in the larval host plant, Salvinia molesta. These findings could explain the highest number of deposited eggs by S. littoralis females surviving larvae fed on castor bean, which contained the highest concentration of nitrogen, compared to the remaining tested host plants. It is well known that the maturation of insect eggs is dependent basically on the materials taken up from the surrounding hemolymph and by materials synthesized by the ovary in situ (Indrasith et al. 1988). These materials include proteins, lipids and carbohydrates, all of which are required for embryogenesis (Kanost et al. 1990).
The tested host plants exerted significant effects on the growth and nutritional indices of S. littoralis larvae. In agreement with the obtained results, Gacemi et al. (2019) elucidated that 5th -instar larvae of S. littoralis reared on artichoke showed the highest ECI and ECD, and the lowest of both values on cabbage. The highest CI, RGR, and AD were on cabbage. Ismail (2020) recorded that the highest CI of S. littoralis larvae was on cabbage, followed by broad bean, and clover, with the highest RGR and AD on broad bean and cabbage, respectively. Mousavi et al. (2023) showed that the lowest and the highest AD values of S. littoralis larvae were on basil and purslane, respectively. The highest ECI and ECD were on chives and coriander, respectively, whereas the lowest ECI, ECD, and RGR were on purslane. Jooyandeh (2018) showed that Sivand and Super Queen tomato cultivars were unsuitable hosts for rearing Helicoverpa armigera based on the nutritional performance of larvae. Mehrkhou et al. (2013) showed the highest RGR, ECI, and ECD of Pieris brassicae larvae were on white cabbage cultivar. Xue et al. (2010) reported that the highest CI of S. litura larvae was on sweet potato, whereas the lowest CI and AD were on tobacco. Although, larvae fed on tobacco showed the highest ECI and ECD. Zhu et al. (2005) found that S. litura larvae had lower RGR, CI, and AD on banana, although they had a significantly higher ECI and ECD. The effects of host plant types on the nutritional indices of S. frugiperda have been reported by several authors (da Silva et al. 2017b; Bavisa et al. 2021; Al-Ayat et al. 2022; Nandhini et al. 2023).
The nutritional indices of 4th, 5th, and 6th -instar larvae of S. littoralis were not consistent with each other. They were not only varied based on the type of host plant and instar, but also on the age of the same instar. This because the nutritional requirements of the insect change through development (Browne 1995) and thus differences typically result in changes of food consumption and utilization. Analysis of the nutritional indices can provide an understanding of the behavioral and physiological bases of insect-plant interactions (Lazarevic and Peric-Mataruga 2003). The factors determining nutrient availability for growth and maintenance over a given period of development are the amount and type of food consumed and the efficiency with which it is utilized (Browne and Raubenheimer 2003). The current investigation showed that the tested host plants had significant effects but with varying degrees on the nutritional and growth indices of S. littoralis larvae. The significant obtained differences may be attributed to the variations of nutritive values of host plants. The ECI and ECD are important parameters of nutritional responses of an insect (Parra et al. 2012). The 6th -instar larvae fed on castor bean showed the highest values of the ECI and ECD. This is suggestive of higher efficiency to convert ingested and digested castor bean to biomass. In contrast, larvae fed on cucumber showed the lowest values of the ECI and ECD. Timmins and Reynolds (1992) attributed reduction in the efficiency of food utilization to increased energetic costs arising from a reduced ability to utilize dietary nitrogen, which would not necessarily interfere with absorption from the gut. The ECD value indicates the allocation of assimilated food to growth, hence a decreased ECD proves as an indicator of higher metabolic maintenance costs (Slansky and Scriber 1985). It is well known that the degree of food utilization depends on the digestibility of food and the efficiency with which digested food is converted into biomass (Batista Pereira et al. 2002).
The CI can be considered as indirect measurement of the relative susceptibilities of crops to pest infestation (Praveen and Dhandapani 2001).The highest CI value of 6th -instar larvae of S. littoralis fed on castor bean indicated the highest rate of intake relative to the mean larval weight during the feeding on this host plant. The highest value of CI of larvae fed on castor bean was concomitant with the highest values of ECI and ECD, leading to the highest weight of full-grown larvae fed on castor bean. The lowest values of ECI and ECD of larvae fed on cucumber revealed the lowest weight of full-grown larvae fed on cucumber.
It is known that the lepidopteran larvae fed on high-nutrient food obtained a faster growth rate and possessed a short life cycle when compared with those fed on low-nutrient food (Hwang et al. 2008). In the present study, the importance of nitrogen and phosphorous in the tested host plants to S. littoralis larvae have been proven as there was a positive correlation between their concentrations and larval weight, with the highest concentrations in castor bean and the lowest concentrations in tomato. This reflects the high fitness of S. littoralis fed on castor bean and the low fitness on tomato. Nitrogen is the major nutrient required by insects and in most cases the main limiting factor for optimal growth of insects (Rostami et al. 2012). Application of nitrogen fertilizer normally increases herbivore feeding preference, food consumption, survival, growth, reproduction, and population density (Taylor and Sands 2009; Bala et al. 2018). Phosphorus had a positive effect on several parameters of aphid performance (Bala et al. 2018). Estiarte et al. (1994) reported that nitrogen limitation produced lower nutritional quality of leaves, with lower relative growth rates and lower efficiency of conversion of ingested biomass on the polyphagous herbivore H. armigera.
Moreover, the negative impacts of secondary metabolites in the host plants on herbivore insects are also considered. For example, the antifeedant effects of phenolic content in tomato leaves (Selvanarayanan and Muthukumaran 2005) and glycoalkaloids in the family Solanaceae (e.g., tomato and potato) (Chowański et al. 2016) have been reported. Furthermore, glycoalkaloids extracted from potato leaves exerted negative effects on the hatching success of eggs of S. exigua (Thawabteh et al. 2019).
It appears that castor bean was the most preferred host plant of S. littoralis larvae. With insects of the order Lepidoptera, host plant preference for larvae is commonly associated with adult female choice of the site of oviposition (Singer 1984; Leal and Zucoloto 2008). Accounting for this behavioral pattern, many studies have investigated the relationship between host preference of adult females and performance of their offspring (Damman and Feeney 1988; Nylin and Janz 1993; Singer et al. 1994), known as the ‘preference-performance hypothesis’ or as the ‘mother-knows-best hypothesis’ (Jaenike 1978; Gripenberg et al. 2010). Host preference of herbivore insects seems to be triggered by plant characteristics that affect the insects’ performance, including nutritional composition, allelochemicals, and even physical characteristics such as hardness, size, shape, and texture (Renwich 1983; Tabashinik and Slansky 1987; Bruce et al. 2005). These factors may determine host recognition (Scriber and Slansky 1985; Thompson and Pellmyr 1991; Dodds et al. 1996) and may play an important role for the biology and nutritional ecology of S. littoralis.
Conclusion
The present study emphasized that castor bean was the most preferred host plant of S. littoralis larvae. This finding is suggestive of implementing a mixed cropping system, not a monoculture system, in which castor bean should be cultivated with the candidate economic plant, leading to less infestation by S. littoralis. The obtained laboratory findings need to be confirmed with some field trials before reaching a definite conclusion.
Data availability
All data related to this study are present in the paper.
References
Abd-Allah GE, Ahmed WA (2022) Effect of host plant difference on the biology and life table parameters of Spodoptera Littoralis (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Egypt J Plant Prot Res Inst 5:123–128
Abel CA, Snodgrass GL, Gore J (2007) A cultural method for the area-wide control of tarnished plant bug Lygus lineolaris. In: Vreysen MJB, Robinson AS, Hendrichs J (eds) Area-wide control of insect pests from research to field implementation, vol 1. Springer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp 497–504
Al-Ayat AA, Atta AAM, Gad HA (2022) Biology and nutritional indices of the fall armyworm Spodoptera frugiperda fed on five Egyptian host plants as a new invasive insect pest in Egypt. J Crop Prot 12:499–506
Al-Shannaf HMH (2011) Estimated food consumption and feeding effect with different host plants on the development and reproductive capacity of Spodoptera Littoralis (Boisd.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Egypt Acad J Biol Sci 4:1–8
Altaf N, Idrees A, Ullah MI, Arshad M, Afzal A, Afzal M, Li M, Rizwan J (2022) Biotic potential induced by different host plants in the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Insects 13: 921
Awmack CS, Leather SR (2002) Host plant quality and fecundity in herbivorous insects. Annu Rev Entomol 47:817–844
Babic B, Poisson A, Darwish S, Lacasse J, Merkx-Jacques M, Despland E, Bede JC (2008) Influence of dietary nutritional composition on caterpillar salivary enzyme activity. J Insect Physiol 54:286–296
Baghery F, Fathipour Y, Naseri B (2013) Nutritional indices of Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on seeds of five host plants. Appl Entomol Phytopathol 80:19–27
Bala K, Sood AK, Pathania VS, Thakur S (2018) Effect of plant nutrition in insect pest management: a review. J Pharamcog Phytochem 7:2737–2742
Batista Pereira LG, Petacci F, Fernandes JB, Corrêa AG, Vieira PC, da Silva MF, Malaspina O (2002) Biological activity of astilbin from Dimorphandra mollis against Anticarsia gemmatalis and Spodoptera frugiperda. Pest Manag Sci 58:503–507
Bavisa RV, Jethva DM, Wadaskar PS (2021) Host preference and digestibility indices of Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on different host plants under laboratory condition. Pharm Innov J 10:1081–1083
Behmer ST (2009) Insect herbivore nutrient regulation. Annu Rev Entomol 54:165–187
Browne LB (1995) Ontogenetic changes in feeding behavior. In: Chapman RF, Boer GDE (eds) Regulatory mechanisms in insect feeding. Chapman and Hall, pp 307–342
Browne LB, Raubenheimer D (2003) Ontogenetic changes in the rate of ingestion and estimates of food consumption in fourth and fifth instar Helicoverpa armigera caterpillars. J Insect Physiol 49:63–71
Bruce TJA, Wadhams LJ, Woodcock CM (2005) Insect host location: a volatile situation. Trends Plant Sci 10:269–274
Cabezas MF, Nava DE, Geissler LO, Melo M, Garcia MS, Krüger R (2013) Development and leaf consumption by Spodoptera cosmioides (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) reared on leaves of agroenergy crops. Neotrop Entomol 42:588–594
CABI (2022) Spodoptera littoralis (cotton leafworm). from https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/10.1079/cabicompendium.51070#core-ref-69. Accessed 22 August 2022
Carey JR (2001) Insect biodemography. Annu Rev Entomol 46:79–110
Chowański S, Adamski Z, Marciniak P, Rosiński G, Büyükgüzel E, Büyükgüzel K, Falabella P, Scrano L, Ventrella E, Lelario F, Bufo SA (2016) A review of bioinsecticidal activity of Solanaceae alkaloids. Toxins 8:60
da Silva DM, de Freitas Bueno A, dos Santos Stecca C, Andrade K, Neves PMOJ, de Oliveira MCN (2017a) Biology of Spodoptera eridania and Spodoptera cosmioides (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on different host plants. Fla Entomol 100:752–760
da Silva DM, de Freitas Bueno A, Andrade K, dos Santos Stecca C, Neves PMOJ, de Oliveira MCN (2017b) Biology and nutrition of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) fed on different food sources. Sci Agric 74:18–31
Damman H, Feeney P (1988) Mechanisms and consequences of selective oviposition by the zebra swallowtail butterfly. Anim Behav 36:563–573
Després L, David JP, Galett C (2007) The evolutionary ecology of insect resistance to plant chemicals. Trends Ecol Evol 22:298–307
Diédhiou CA, SSembene SM, Dieng EM, Diome T (2021) Biology of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) fed on different food sources. J Entomol Zool Stud 9:63–70
Dodds KA, Clancy KM, Leyva KL, Greenberg D, Price PW (1996) Effects of Douglas-fir foliage age class on Western spruce budworm oviposition choice and larval performance. Great Basin Nat 56:135–141
Estiarte M, Filella I, Serra J, Peñuelas J (1994) Effects of nutrient and water stress on leaf phenolic content of peppers and susceptibility to generalist herbivore Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner). Oecologia 99:387–391
Gacemi A, Taibi A, Abed NE, Bouzina MM, Bellague D, Tarmoul K (2019) Effect of four host plants on nutritional performance of cotton leafworm, Spodoptera littoralis (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). J Crop Prot 8:361–371
Genc H (2006) General principles of insect nutritional ecology. Trakya Univ J Sci 7:53–57
Golizadeh A, Kamali K, Fathipour Y, Abbasipour H (2009) Life table of the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (L.) (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) on five cultivated brassicaceous host plants. J Agric Sci Technol 11:115–124
Gopalakrishnan R (2022) Biology and biometric characteristics of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) reared on different host plants with regard to diet. Agric Sci China 78:2043–2051
Greenberg SM, Sappington TW, Legaspi BC, Liu TX, Setamou M (2001) Feeding and life history of Spodoptera exigua (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on different host plants. Ann Entomol Soc Am 94:566–575
Gripenberg S, Mayhew PJ, Parnell MK, Roslim T (2010) A meta-analysis of preference-performance relationships in phytophagous insects. Ecol Lett 13:383–393
Haghani M, Fathipour Y, Talebi AA, Baniameri V (2006) Comparative demography of Liriomyza sativae Blanchard (Diptera: Agromyzidae) on cucumber at seven constant temperatures. Insect Sci 13:477–483
He L-M, Wang T-L, Chen Y-C, Ge S-S, Wyckhuys KAG, Wu KM (2021) Larval diet affects development and reproduction of east Asian strain of the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda. J Integr Agric 20:736–744
Hemmati SA, Naseri B, Ganbalani GN, Dastjerdi HR, Golizadeh A (2012) Effect of different host plants on nutritional indices of the pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera. J Insect Sci 12:1–15
Hemmati SA, Shishehbor P, Stelinski LL (2022) Life table parameters and digestive enzyme activity of Spodoptera Littoralis (Boisd) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on selected legume cultivars. Insects 13:661
Herde R (2009) Response of Helicoverpa armigera to agricultural environments diversified through companion planting. MPhil Thesis, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
Hwang S-Y, Liu C-H, Shen T-C (2008) Effects of plant nutrient availability and host plant species on the performance of two Pieris butterflies (Lepidoptera: Pieridae). Biochem Syst Ecol 36:505–513
Indrasith LS, Sasaki T, Yaginuma T, Yamashita O (1988) The occurrence of premature form of egg-specific protein in vitellogenic follicles of Bombyx mori. J Comp Physiol 158:1–7
Ismail SM (2020) Influences of different host plants on biological and food utilization of the cotton leafworm, Spodoptera littoralis. Prog Chem Biochem Res 3:229–238
Jaenike J (1978) On optimal oviposition behavior in phytophagous insects. Theor Popul Biol 14:350–356
Johansson AS (1964) Feeding and nutrition in reproductive processes in insects. In: Highman KC (ed) Insect reproduction. Symposia of the Royal Entomological Society, London, pp 43–52
Jooyandeh A, Moeini-Naghadeh N, Vahedi HA, Gharalari AH (2018) Nutritional indices and food utilization of tomato fruit worm, Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner, 1808) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on ten tomato cultivars. J Entomol Soc Iran 37:493–506
Kanost MR, Kawooya JK, Law JH, Rayn RO, Van-Heusen MC, Ziegler R (1990) Insect haemolymph proteins. In: Evans PD, Wigglesworth VB (eds) Advances in insect physiology, vol 22. Academic, London, UK, pp 299–396
Kianpour R, Fathipour Y, Karimzadeh J, Hosseininaveh V (2014) Influence of different host plant cultivars on nutritional indices of Plutella xylostella (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae). Crop Prot 3:43–49
Kim DS, Lee JH (2002) Egg and larval survivorship of Carposina Sasakii (Lepidoptera: Carposinidae) in apple and peach and their effects on adult population dynamics in orchards. Environ Entomol 31:686–692
La Rossa FR, Vasicek A, Lopez MC (2013) Effects of pepper (Capsicum annuum) cultivars on the biology and life table parameters of Myzus persicae (Sulz.) (Hemiptera: Aphididae). Neotrop Entomol 42:634–641
Lazarevic J, Peric-Mataruga V (2003) Nutritive stress effects on growth and digestive physiology of Lymantria dispar larvae. Yugoslav Med Biochem 22:53–59
Leal TABS, Zucoloto FS (2008) Selection of artificial hosts for oviposition by wild Anastrepha obliqua (Macquart) (Diptera: Tephritidae): influence of adult food and effect of experience. Rev Bras Entomol 52:467–471
Liu Y, Wang X, Luo F, Wu L, Zhang Y, Lan T (2018) Determination and analysis of leaf P and K concentrations of several plant species in Jinan City. E3S Web of Conferences 53: 03055
Maharani Y, Puspitaningrum D, Istifadah N, Hidayat S, Ismail A (2021) Biology and life table of fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on maize and rice. Serangga 26:161–174
Maia ADHN, Luiz AJB, Campanhola C (2000) Statistical inference on associated fertility life table parameters using jackknife technique: computational aspects. J Econ Entomol 93:511–518
Makkar AW, Al-Shannaf HMH, El-Hamaky MA, Sokkar AL (2015) Life table parameters of the cotton leafworm, Spodoptera littoralis (Boisd.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on different host plants. J Plant Prot Path Mansoura Univ 6:115–128
Mehrkhou F, Mahmoodi L, Mouavi M (2013) Nutritional indices parameters of large white butterfly Pieris brassicae (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) on different cabbage crops. Afr J Agric Res 8:3294–3298
Mohamed HA, Alkordy MW, Atta AA (2019) Effects of host plants on biology of Spodoptera Littoralis (Boisd). Egypt Acad J Biolog Sci 12:65–73
Mousavi SMH, Hematti SA, Rasekh A (2023) Feeding responses and digestive function of Spodoptera Littoralis (Boisd) on various leafy vegetables exhibit possible tolerance traits. Bull Entomol Res 11:430–438
Muñoz-Huerta RF, Guevara-Gonzalez RG, Contreras-Medina LM, Torres-Pacheco I, Prado-Olivarez J, Ocampo-Velazquez RV (2013) A review of methods for sensing the nitrogen status in plants: advantages, disadvantages and recent advances. Sens (Basel) 13:10823–10843
Nandhini D, Deshmukh SS (2023) Effect of host plants on the biology and nutritional indices of fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Anim Biol 73:153–170Kalleshwaraswamy CK, Satish KM, Sannathimmappa HG
Naranjo SE, Ellsworth PC (2005) Mortality dynamics and population regulation in Bemisia tabaci. Entomol Exp Appl 116:93–108
Naseri B, Fathipour Y, Moharramipour S, Hosseininaveh V (2010) Nutritional indices of the cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera, on 13 soybean varieties. J Insect Sci 10:151
Nation JL (2002) Insect physiology and biochemistry. CRC, Boca Raton, Florida, USA
Nylin S, Janz N (1993) Oviposition preference and larval performance in Polygonia c-album (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae): the choice between bad and worse. Ecol Entomol 18:394–398
Omer AD, Johnson MW, Tabashnik BE (1996) Demography of the leafminer parasitoid Ganaspidium Utilis Beardsley (Hymenoptera: Eucoilidae) at different temperatures. Biol Control 6:29–34
Parra JRP, Panizzi AR, Marinéia L, Haddad ML (2012) Nutritional indices for measuring insect food intake and utilization. In: Panizzi AR, Parra JRP (eds) Insect bioecology and nutrition for integrated pest management. CRC, Boca Raton, FL, USA, pp 13–49
Pathak VM, Verma VK, Rawat BS, Kaur B, Babu N, Sharma A, Dewali S, Yadav M, Kumari R, Singh S, Mohapatra A, Pandey V, Rana N, Cunil JM (2022) Current status of pesticide effects on environment, human health and it’s eco-friendly management as bioremediation: a comprehensive review. Front Microbiol 13:962619
Praveen PM, Dhandapani N (2001) Consumption, digestion and utilization of biopesticides treated tomato fruits by Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner). J Biol Control 15:59–62
Renwich JAA (1983) Non preference mechanisms: plants characteristics influencing insect behavior. In: Hedin PA (ed) Plant resistance to insects. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, USA, pp 199–213
Rostami M, Zamani AA, Goldasteh S, Shoushtari RV, Katayoon Kheradmand KK (2012) Influence of nitrogen fertilization on biology of Aphis gossypii (Hemiptera: Aphididae) reared on Chrysanthemum Iindicum (Asteraceae). J Plant Prot Res 52:118–121
Schmidt DJ, Reese JC (1986) Sources of error in nutritional index studies of insects on artificial diet. J Insect Physiol 32:193–198
Scriber JM, Slansky F (1981) The nutritional ecology of immature insects. Annu Rev Entomol 26:183–211
Scriber JM, Slansky F Jr (1985) Food consumption and utilization. In: Kerkut GA, Gilbert LI (eds) Comprehensive insect physiology, biochemistry and pharmacology. Pergamon, New York, USA, pp 87–163
Selvanarayanan V, Muthukumaran N (2005) Insect resistance in tomato accessions and their hybrid derivatives in Tamil Nadu, India. Commun Agric Appl Biol Sci 70:613–624
Shahout HA, Xu HX, Yao XM, Jia QD (2011) Influence and mechanism of different host plants on the growth, development, and fecundity of reproductive system of common cutworm Spodoptera litura (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Asian J Agric Sci 3:291–300
Shapiro SS, Wilk MB (1965) An analysis of variance test for normality (complete sample). Biometrika 52:591–611
Shaurub EH, Abdel Aal AE, Emara SA (2020) Suppressive effects of insect growth regulators on development, reproduction and nutritional indices of the Egyptian cotton leafworm, Spodoptera littoralis (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Invertebr Rep Develop 64:178–187
Shaurub EH, Tawfik AI, El-Sayed AS (2023) Individual and combined treatments with imidacloprid and spinosad disrupt survival, life–history traits, and nutritional physiology of Spodoptera Littoralis. Int J Trop Insect Sci 43:737–748
Shirinbeik Mohajer S, Golizadeh A, Hassanpour M, Fathi SAA, Sedaratian-Jahromi A, Abedi Z (2022) Interaction between biological parameters of Panonychus Citri (Acari: Tetranychidae) and some phytochemical metabolites in different citrus species. Bull Entomol Res 112:509–519
Singer MC (1984) Butterfly-host plant relationships: host quality, adult choice and larval success. In: Vane-Wright R, Ackery PR (eds) The biology of butterflies. Academic, New York, USA, pp 81–88
Singer MC, Thomas CD, Billington HL, Parmesan C (1994) Correlates of speed of evolution of host preference in a set of twelve populations of the butterfly Euphydryas editha. Ecoscience 1:107–114
Singh AK, Mullick S (1997) Effect of leguminous plants on the growth and development of gram pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera. Indian J Entomol 59:209–214
Singh H, Singh MK (2022) Role of life table in insect pest management. Vigyan Varta 3:82–84
Slansky F Jr, Scriber J (1985) Food consumption and utilization. In: Kerkut GA, Gilbert LI (eds) Comprehensive insect physiology, biochemistry and pharmacology, vol 1. Pergamon, Oxford, UK, pp 87–163
Smagghe G, Carton B, Wesemael W, Ishaaya I, Tirry L (1999) Ecdysone agonists-mechanism of action and application on Spodoptera species. Pestic Sci 55:343–389
Southwood TR, Henderson PA (2000) Ecological methods. 3rd edition, Blackwell Science, London, UK
Syed TS, Abro GH (2003) Effect of brassica vegetables hosts on biology and life table parameters of Pluiella xylosrelia under laboratory conditions. Pak J Biol Sci 6:1891–1896
Tabashinik BE, Slansky F Jr (1987) Nutritional ecology of forb foliage-chewing insects. In: Slansky F Jr, Rodriguez JG (eds) Nutritional ecology of insects, spiders and related invertebrates. Wiley-Interscience, New York, USA, pp 71–103
Taylor MFJ, Sands DPA (2009) Effects of ageing and nutrition on the reproductive system of Samea multiplicalis Guenée (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). Bull Entomol Res 76:513–517
Thawabteh A, Juma S, Bader M, Karaman D, Scrano L, Bufo SA, Karaman R (2019) The Biological activity of natural alkaloids against herbivores, cancerous cells and pathogens. Toxins 11:656
Thompson JN, Pellmyr O (1991) Evolution of oviposition behavior and host preference in Lepidoptera. Annu Rev Entomol 36:65–89
Timmins WA, Reynolds SE (1992) Azadirachtin inhibits secretion of trypsin in midgut of Manduca sexta caterpillars: reduced growth due to impaired protein digestion. Entomol Exp Appl 63:47–54
Tsai JH, Wang JJ (2001) Effects of host plants on biology and life table parameters of Aphis Spiraecola (Homoptera: Aphididae). Environ Entomol 30:44–50
Waldbauer GP (1968) The consumption and utilization of food by insects. Adv Insect Physiol 5:229–288
Wu KM (2007) Regional management strategy for cotton bollworm Helicoverpa armigera in China. In: Vreysen MJB, Robinson AS, Hendrichs J (eds) Area-wide control of insect pests from research to field implementation, vol 1. Springer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp 559–565
Xue M, Pang YH, Wang HT, Li QL, Liu TX (2010) Effects of four host plants on biology and food utilization of the cutworm, Spodoptera litura. J Insect Sci 10:22
Zhang Z, Liu H, Helen H-S, Wang J-J (2021) Effect of host plants on development, fecundity and enzyme activity of Spodoptera exigua (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Agric Sci China 10:1232–1240
Zhu JH, Zhang FP, Ren HG (2005) Development and nutrition of Prodenia litura on four food plants. Chin Bull Entomol 42:643–646
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to Prof. Dr. Khaled F. Abdel-Wakel, Zoology and Entomology Department, Faculty of Science, Assiut University for his kind help in the statistical analysis. Sincere thanks to Dr. Asmaa E. Metwaly, in the same department for her help during preparing the paper.
Funding
Open access funding provided by The Science, Technology & Innovation Funding Authority (STDF) in cooperation with The Egyptian Knowledge Bank (EKB).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
RME carried out the experiments. EHS, GEA, AAE and ZSA conceived and designed the paper. EHS prepared and wrote the manuscript. All authors read and approved the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
About this article
Cite this article
El-Refaie, R.M., Shaurub, ES.H., Abd-Allah, G.E. et al. Effect of four host plants on the life history and nutritional indices of Spodoptera Littoralis. Int J Trop Insect Sci (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42690-024-01220-w
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42690-024-01220-w