1 Introduction

Soil profile variation among intra and inter-regional agroecosystem provides information not only about characteristics and individuality perspective but also frequent anthropogenic interferences. Coastal soil is the most significant and formed due to natural weathering. Pedogenesis is an ever-evolving process [1, 2]. Soil has complex buffering capacity which is advantageous to sustenance of human and other living fauna and flora [3]. Increased utilization of pesticides in small scale agricultural field can threat to ecosystem [4]. The typical weather and other edaphic factors also influence the distribution of coastal soil. So understanding the procedure of soil concoction response is basic for regulating agro biological system from territorial to worldwide scale [5,6,7]. The evaluation of soil forms can be gauged by the breakdown of physically happening minerals, stones, animal matter and growth of plants. Likewise, it also incorporates the recognition of particles from engineered composts to various forms of phosphate, nitrate and sulfate as ecological antiques [8]. Soil profile is modulated by countless dead and decaying materials of plants and animals and anthropogenic origin [9, 10]. Standardization of soil appraisals is troublesome as a result of assorted variety and un-homogeneity of soil tests [11].The mineral investigation gives prompt territory of research. The most significant ramifications of soil contaminants are pesticides, hydrocarbons, herbicides, and chlorinated hydrocarbons [10]. Soil characteristics have the most significant biological excellence than air and water [12]. Interestingly, soil quality was not restricted to the level of soil contamination. Soils regularly respond to altered land utilization [13,14,15,16]. In this manner, a significant constituent of soil reflects the soil superiority. Sandy soils were utilized in agrofarms in numerous geographical areas of the globe [17, 18]. Moreover, soils show more porousness and less water absorbance tendency [19,20,21]. Sandy loam soils differ in their synthetic and morphological factors to a large extent [18, 22]. The principal sources of soil varieties were due to topography and edaphic factors [2, 18, 23,24,25]. Understanding the physicochemical properties of soil helps to opt the best soil for crop improvement [26,27,28]. The soil’s capacity to provide water for plant life is an element of the water maintenance, whose consequences from the association between mineralogy, surface, cropping systems, organic fractions, and the administration rehearses [29]. Soil organic Carbon stockpiling was affected by the integrity between carbon contribution, from plant deposits or animal excreta. Changes in soil dampness, nitrogen substance (N), and temperature can prompt significant alteration in soil breath and total carbon [30]. Soils accumulate according to environment and measures of carbon content (C) as natural issue. Moreover, postponed advancement revives the disintegration of soil regular issue and the effect the damage of 20% to 67% of the soil carbon in an agrarian plot [27, 31]. However, rebuilding of high plant assorted variety may enormously expand carbon catch and capacity rates on corrupted and deserted cultivating lands [32, 33]. Nitrogen contribution to agricultural field, atmospheric nitrogen deposition affects the net CO2–N2O contribution impacting nitrogen advancement [10]. Its deposition rates are increasing worldwide due to fossil fuel and compost use [34]. It also expected to invigorate soil N2O discharge [35]. Phosphorus (P) is a key component for the most part constraining essential creation and yield of harvest plants, which has prompted enormous measures of phosphate manure in agri-business at worldwide scale [36]. Mineralization is a physiological progression, which comprises the mineral deposition in a natural setup. Minerals are composed of generally calcium. Mineralization is a complex and multi-staged procedure requiring associations of numerous physicoedaphic factors.

Water is the most significant regular assets on the earth. As a result of its multifarious use, water is indispensible for existence of human society and nature and there are expanding clashes between limiting human water deficiencies and sustaining healthy ecosystem [37]. This is quite obvious that whole plant water use and productivity viably depicts the connection among carbon and water trade at a significant level that was pertinent to all the improved plant rivalry and biological systems responses to water deficiencies [38]. Various methodologies have been created to survey the water quality. These strategies incorporate the examination of various parameters like pH, conductivity, total organic carbon (TOC), turbidity, and total dissolved solids (TDS). TOC is the sum of carbon originating from natural chemical composite and utilized as inexplicit marker of water quality [37]. The biochemical oxygen demand test has conventionally been utilized in water analysis because of issues of repeatability and restraint by regularly occurring water ions and compounds, is as often as possible supplanted by the chemical oxygen demand test for water monitoring, modeling, design and plant operational investigation [10]. The BOD test is a five day experiment whereas COD outcomes finished around that day. Likewise, COD experiment is unchanged by the nearness of poisonous substances accomplishing good accuracy and consistency, in spite of fact that chloride (Cl−) can hamper the test at higher density [39]. However, conventional methods have various disadvantages. So, analysis of total organic carbon with modern instruments has essential [34]. TOC is the possible option to both BOD and COD experiments and conceivably extra demand than COD experiment [18, 40]. Recently TOC is considered as a potential substitution of COD and BOD analysis [41]. Additionally, TOC has significant role to monitor overall levels of organic compounds present in water, and it has also utilized as potent indicator of qualitative water assessment [42].

1.1 Study area

The coastal villages of different districts (Balasore, Puri,and Ganjam) were selected for the study. Soil and water samples were collected from Piper betle cultivated vineyards of Bahalia revenue area of Bhogarai block of Balasore (21°39′0.09″N87°27′0.6″E), Torihan Bondha of Nimapada block of Puri (20.06°N85.93°E) and Randha of Panchama block of Ganjam (19.23°N 84.76°E) district (Fig. 1). Common varieties of betel leaves, i.e., Piper betle var. Bali, Piper betle var. Chandrakana, Piper betle var. Kala Bangla and Piper betle var. Jhanji were found in soils of Balasore, Puri and Ganjam districts respectively (Fig. 1c). The climates of these districts are observed as summer season, dry winter season, high humidity rainy season and average temperature throughout year. Cyclones are frequent in these districts because of the close proximity to the Bay of Bengal.

Fig. 1
figure 1

a, b Map of India and Odisha showing the study sites. c Graphical representation of characterization of soil and water with specific common betel varieties

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2 Materials and methods

2.1 Soil sampling and analysis

Soil sampling was done in the year 2017–2018. Top surface soil (upper) and 30 cm depth soil (lower) were collected inside the Betel vineyards (Boraj) of study sites. Soil profile characterized by their constituent particles size, morphology and color [43, 44]. Soil organic carbon distribution within soil profile has extremely influenced by diverse natural and anthropogenic practices. The alterations in soil profile by any means will affect soil carbon accumulation in subsequent layers of soil profile. Soil texture analysis can be studied through soil profiling of top 30 cm soil of respective vine yards. Water holding capacity of soil of coastal India is adequate for optimal vegetation of betel vines. Excavation and analysis of top 30 cm soil holds fundamental clue to the nutrient analysis [45, 46]. The sampling process followed by taking out plant material and leaves from the spot before collecting soil samples. The soils gathered by 7 cm diameter of T-shaped iron twist drill up to deepness of 30 cm. A stainless steel flat spatula was utilized for taking soil. Five samples (four different corners and one from center) were utilized to make mixtures, for the selection of better set. These procedures were used for both surface (upper) and 30 cm depth (lower) soil. The soil samples were sieved (< 0.2 mm) and air dried and stored in sterile closed glass bottles for further investigation [11, 47]. Samples were numbered serially and symbolically from 1 to 6 for untreated soils (sample 1 is lower soil of Balasore, 2 is surface soil of Balasore, 3 denoted as lower soil of Ganjam, followed by upper soil sample 4, 5 represented as 30 cm depth soil of Puri followed by surface soil sample 6) and 1T to 6T for treated soils (1T and 2T are depth and surface soils of Balasore, 3T and 4T are depth and surface soils of Ganjam and lower and upper soils of Puri are 5T and 6T. pH, electrical conductivity and temperature of soil samples were analyzed by taking direct reading of potable LCD digital pH, temperature, and EC meter. Texture was determined by Bouyouco’s method [48, 49]. For estimation of hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen and sulfur percentages, fine homogenized powdered soils were dictated by CHNS analyzer (Model: EuroVector EA 3000 elemental analyzer). H2O2 (30%) treated soils were directed to eradicate the natural organic carbon (OC) from mass soil samples. The powdered fine samples (soil) are densely treated with potassium bromide (KBr) pellets (small sphere) and analyzed by FTIR Benchtop system, The Agilent Cary 670 spectrometer. For Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis, spectral scanning obtained at 4000–500 cm−1 wave number to evaluate mass soils and H2O2 (30%) treatment soil [50,51,52]. The FTIR peaks were analyzed by Essential FTIR v3.50.185 from Operant LLC, Searchlt-KnowltAll®information system, ID expert from BioRad laboratories, Inc. and IRPal 2.0 table-driven infrared application programming. For SEM–EDS, Soils were set up by scattering dry powder on both sided conductive sticky tape. Tests were covered with carbon by curve release technique for SEM–EDS and the dried soils were gold-coated utilizing gold electroplating machine (Cressington 108, 19-010100) for 120 s. The gold-coated soil samples were viewed in Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)-Zeiss EVO40. The SEM pictures were examined using the programing Image J. The surfaces of the particles were scanned and the elemental composition with arrangement was determined by energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDS) attached to SEM. The outcomes were detected and recorded with the Genesis 60E programming [6]. The mineralogical identification of soil samples were further analyzed by X-ray diffractometer (XRD powder) adopting Panalytical X’Pert PRO MPD (PW3040/60) diffractometer with a X’ celerator detector having CuKα radiation and a X-ray ceramic tube. The scanning range was 5° to 90° 2θ, 30 mA and 40 kV, 60 s time/step and 0.02° advanced step size, anti-scattering of 1/4° and divergent slit of 1/8°. The experimental spectral patterns were matched with patterns received from the International Centre for Diffraction Data (ICDD) or Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction Standard (JCPDS) data base [53] and Match! Phase identification from powder diffraction 3.8.0.137, crystal Impact, Bonn, Germany programming and High score Plus from Panalytical software also used for investigation. For EDXRF analysis, the samples stored in oven for a day at room temperature and make it into fine powder. Crush 2 g of soil sample in mortar and pestle with 0. 2 g of boric acid. Then homogeneous powders were made into hydraulically pressed pellets using 20 tons pressure for 15 s. Then put the sample in Epsilon 5-PANalytical EDXRF spectroscopy.

2.2 Water sampling and analysis

Water samples were taken from deep bore wells (Balasore), pond (Puri), and well (Ganjam). The samples were numbered with numerical as well as symbol (BAL, PUR, GAN). The samples complying the standard methods of American Public Health Organization (APHA) and American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) were analyzed using various calibrated and standard instruments. The pH was measured by using a pocket pH meter (HI98107, HANNA instruments). The pH meter was calibrated and adjusted by pH 4.0, 7.0 and 10.0 standard solutions before initial recording. After each measurement, the probe was washed with deionized water to debar contaminants in the sample. The electrical conductivity and total dissolved solid of the samples was analyzed by utilizing a TDS and EC meter (Model CD-610, HANNA instruments). The turbidity was analyzed by turbidity meter (Model no. 2100P Turbidimeter HACH, Colombia, USA, Arachem (M) Sdn. Bhd.). Temperature is measured by using electronic digital thermometer (Model No. HI98501, Checktemp® CL Celsius) (Table 8). For estimation of total organic carbon (TOC), inorganic carbon (IC), total nitrogen (TN), and total carbon (TC), water samples were analyzed through TOC analyzer (Model: TOC-L/SHIMADZU-01517/Serial No-H544354). TOC concentration is calculated by substracting IC from TC. Potassium hydrogen phthalate of 99.95% analytical grade was used to make a standard TOC curve for calibration [16, 19, 39, 54].

Table 1 The percentage of organic carbon and carbon nitrogen ratio of all study sites
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3 Results

3.1 Soil sampling and analysis

The physiochemical parameters of experimental soils were assessed by standard errors of mean and average. The results of soil profile shows that upper and 30 cm depth soils of Balasore study site (BAL) are more acidic than Ganjam study site (GAN) and Puri study site (PUR). However, lower soils are more acidic than upper soil because of heavy rain fail, manure and commercial fertilizers [55]. The varying soil EC is due to the abundance of moisture held by the soil particles [49, 56, 57]. Soil particle size and texture strongly influence EC. Sandy loam soils of BAL shows low conductivity in upper soil, medium conductivity in clay loam soils of PUR and high conductivity in soils of GAN. Top soils give high conductivity in contrast with depth soils because of moisture content available in protected cultivated vineyards. EC of top soil of GAN range from 0.5 to 0.6 mS cm−1 while EC of 30 cm depth GAN soil varied from 0.4 to 0.5 mS cm−1. EC of top soil of BAL varies from 0.3 to 0.4 mS cm−1 followed by lower soil 0.2 to 0.3 mS cm−1.Temperature of GAN top soils are higher and varies from 22 to 23 °C while lower soil varies from 19 to 21 °C, followed by BAL top soil 18 to 22 °C and lower soil 15 to 19 °C. Upper soil and lower soils of PUR shows average temperature. Temperatures of upper soils are maximum due to typical variation of soil, cultivation methods and external environmental condition.

3.1.1 CHNS analysis

Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulfur (CHNS) are fundamental and essential components of soil. Understanding the strength of the soil in which crops grown is essential for profitable yields. Carbon is significant for energy content while nitrogen is essential for growth [59]. Fertilizers are added to the soils for controlling the carbon/nitrogen (C/N) proportion. Routine assessment of elemental structure of a complex is represented as a weight percentage of each component present in the compound [25]. TC percentage of PUR soils are maximum (1.0 ± 0.0, and 1.0 ± 0.0) followed by GAN and BAL (Table 2), whereas following H2O2 treatment the Mean ± SD percentage of carbon of PUR soils shows 0.4 ± 0.0 (upper), 0.5 ± 0.0 (lower) as compared to GAN 0.2 ± 0.0, 0.2 ± 0.0 and BAL 0.2 ± 0.0, 0.2 ± 0.0, respectively. The organic carbon percentage and carbon nitrogen ratios are depicted in Table 1. In 30 cm depth soil, OC percentage of PUR ranged from 0.6 to 0.7%. Minimum OC percentage 0.04% was recorded from BAL site followed by GAN site. In surface soil, lowest OC percentage was found in BAL site, while the highest OC was found in PUR site. Carbon nitrogen ratio of surface soil of PUR ranged from 5.4 to 6.1%, GAN from 4.7 to 4.9% and BAL 2.2 to 2.6%. Lower soils of PUR (6.5 ± 0.3) recorded Mean ± SD as maximum followed by GAN (3.0 ± 0.2) and BAL (2.2 ± 0.0). Total nitrogen (TN) percentage of untreated soils of GAN site recorded highest Mean ± SD (0.2 ± 0.0) in lower soil and lowest percentage found in the surface soil of BAL site (0.1 ± 0.0). TN percentage of lower soil of BAL shows 0.1 ± 0.0 followed by PUR site 0.2 ± 0.0 and upper soil of PUR site recorded 0.2 ± 0.0 and GAN site 0.1 ± 0.0. After H2O2 treatment, mean ± SD percentage of nitrogen of GAN site decreases (0.1 ± 0.0) and percentage of upper soil of BAL site increases (0.1 ± 0.0). Percentage of TS maximum (4.0 ± 0.0) in upper soils of PUR site followed by lower soil (3.3 ± 0.3) and minimum percentage (0.1 ± 0.0) recorded in BAL site surface soil followed by depth soil (0.1 ± 0.0). After H2O2 treatment, Mean ± SE percentage of sulfur decreases in GAN and PUR site soils while a little change in BAL soil (Table 3). Percentage variation arises in GAN and PUR sites soil due to more assumption of organic matter from clay soils in comparison with sandy soils of BAL.

Table 2 The percentage of total carbon, total nitrogen, and total sulfur content of all study sites
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Table 3 The percentage of inorganic carbon, inorganic nitrogen and inorganic sulfur content of all study sites
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3.1.2 FTIR analysis

Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) absorption spectra of H2O2 treated and untreated soil samples of surface layer and 30 cm depth soils were analyzed in reference to available library files. The observed wave number from all the spectra was given in Tables 4 and 5 with corresponding matching and coordinating mineral names. The common minerals like quartz, hematite, kaolinite, montmorillonite, calcite, organic matter, and illite in diverse compositions are recognized. The spectra of FTIR point out Kaolinite and Quartz as the key components and others are minor components. In Puri site, surface and depth soils recorded a wide retention band at 3305.9 cm−1 in the range proposes the chance of water due to association in absorbent. However, the chief component of clay is kaolinite which provide the pointed absorption spectral band and appear in all samples shows the existence of organic materials [11, 58].The strong absorption band was observed because of Si–O stretching of Kaolinite and vibration showed in the quality of Illite [11]. Figure 2 shows the comparative line graph indicates FTIR spectras of treated and untreated soil samples which justify the variations due to H2O2 treatment. Moreover, FTIR of H2O2 treated soil portrayed variation and nearness of organic compound in inflexible form [52]. In untreated depth soil of Balasore soil the frequency of 1463.79 cm−1 was because of (CO3)2− stretching vibration. The mineral composition of silicate is essential concern as a result of their importance. In all study samples, Quartz (SiO2) was present. The strongest structural bond of silicate was Si–O bonds and seen in IR spectra of region 900–1100 cm−1 was due to stretching in the 400–800 cm−1 intense bands region. The Quartz in the soil was recognized with spectral bands and the IR absorption peaks were reported by several authors [59]. Calcite is the form of CaCO3 (calcium carbonate) in the soil. Crystals of Calcite showed trigonal–rhombohedral, that indicated CaCO3 frequencies correlations correspond to the study of Chester and Elderfield [60]. Kaolinite is electrostatically neutral and has triclinic symmetry. A distinctive kaolinite with an structural configuration of Al2Si2O5 (OH)4 was reported by Li et al. [61]. Hematite is in the form of Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) and it solidifies the rhombohedral framework. It has also similar structure like Corundum and Limonite. The spectra of Hematite were possible due to Fe–O extended manner of vibration. In these soil samples, the concentrations of Hematite peaks were weak to average. Montmorillonite is an exceptionally delicate phyllosilicate gathering of minerals that regularly structure in tiny crystals. The hypothetical configuration of Montmorillonite is (OH)4·Si8·Al4·O20·nH2O. This is made up of hydrous aluminum silicates as incredibly minute particles. The infrared absorption at 3405 cm−1 depicts the existence of Montmorillonite. This may happen because of O–H stretching vibration of H2O particles [61, 62].

Table 4 FTIR spectra of untreated soil with respective minerals of all the study sites
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Table 5 FTIR spectra of treated soil with respective minerals of all the study site
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Fig. 2
figure 2

FTIR spectral comparisons of untreated and treated soils of a Balasore, b Ganjam and c Puri site. (1 and 2—untreated lower and upper soil of Balasore, 1T and 2T—treated lower and upper soil of Balasore; 3 and 4—untreated lower and upper soil of Ganjam, 3T and 4T—treated lower and upper soil of Ganjam; 5 and 6—untreated lower and upper soil of Puri, 5T and 6T—treated lower and upper soil of Puri)

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3.1.3 XRD analysis

The X-ray diffraction (powder) is utilized to distinguish the phase identification of crystalline material and give information about mineral composition of soil [63]. In this technique, some amount of soil samples at all potential directions set in a beam of collimated light emission X-rays of different intensities were checked and recorded consequently to create pattern representing the power of diffracted bar as a function of range 2 Theta (2θ). The presence of minerals in the soil was identified by comparing 2 theta values. The matched standard and overlapped XRD patterns were recorded in Fig. 3 and site wise comparison with untreated and treated soil sample graphs are shown in Fig. 4a–c. From XRD patterns key minerals like kaolinite (K), quartz (Q), hematite (H), illite (I), feldspar (F), calcite (C), and aragonite (A) were identified by comparing with JCPDS data [64]. The observed patterns indicated kaolinite present in the soil as a clay mineral and the nonclay mineral quartz are the major constituents. Further, the presence of these above minerals confirmed the minerals found by the FTIR analysis.

Fig. 3
figure 3

a The experimental and matched patterns of X-ray diffraction spectra of soil sample. X-ray diffraction spectrum depicting mineral patterns of b untreated and c treated soils. (1 and 2–untreated lower and upper soil of Balasore, 3 and 4-untreated lower and upper soil of Ganjam, 5 and 6-untreated lower and upper soil of Puri; 1T and 2T-treated lower and upper soil of Balasore, 3T and 4T-treated lower and upper soil of Ganjam, 5T and 6T-treated lower and upper soil of Puri)

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Fig. 4
figure 4

Compared X-ray diffraction patterns of untreated and treated soils of lower and upper soils of a Balasore, b Ganjam and c Puri. (1 and 2—untreated lower and upper soil of Balasore, 1T and 2T—treated lower and upper soil of Balasore; 3 and 4—untreated lower and upper soil of Ganjam, 3T and 4T—treated lower and upper soil of Ganjam; 5 and 6—untreated lower and upper soil of Puri, 5T, and 6T—treated lower and upper soil of Puri)

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3.1.4 SEM analysis

The scanning electron microscopy analysis is a useful technique to portray the soil and rock as thin section analysis has long-established tool for geologist [65, 66]. With SEM, scientist can inspect the bulk mineral composition and potent observation regarding surface [65, 67]. In this investigation, two magnification 100×  and 5000×  were selected for the soil morphology analysis. Figure 5 showed SEM image of untreated and treated soil sample of Odisha. Sandy loam soil particle of Balasore site lower and upper soils was having well-structured and irregular surface (Fig. 5a) while clay loam soil particle of Ganjam and Puri sites were having compact and smooth surface (Fig. 5b, c) at magnification 100 ×. Magnification at 5000 × shows quartz, kaolinite, calcite, feldspar, and illite in various structure (Fig. 5). It demarcated sporadic, round, triangular and almost triangular for quartz; platy shape for calcite; rectangular, hexagonal, vermiform and flower like appearance for kaolinite in the coastal soil. [17, 69,70,71]. SEM micrograph of kaolinite indicated euhedral, hexagonal, and pseudo-hexagonal shaped plates [70]. The Quartz full molecules in the SEM image was sporadic form and unpleasant face covered with tiny clay dishes [72]. Euhradral, linear, subhedral curvilinear, and euhedral types Quartz were recognized by study of Stefanie et al. [73]. Scalenohedral and rhombohedral crystal habit of Calcite and prismatic crystal habit of Aragonite twins were distinguished by Gobac et al. [74]. Mineral constituents of untreated and treated soil were further characterized by EDS (Fig. 6).

Fig. 5
figure 5

a SEM images of sandy loam soils observed at specific magnification (× 100 and × 5000) of Balasore district soil. a and b (1) are lower soil, c, d (2) are upper soil, e, f and g, h (1T and 2T) are respective treated soil. b SEM images of clay loam soils observed at specific magnification (× 100 and × 5000) of Ganjam district soil. a and b (3) are lower soil, c and d (4) are upper soil, e, f and g, h (3T and 4T) are respective treated soil. c SEM images of clay loam soils observed at specific magnification (× 100 and × 5000) of Puri district soil. a and b (5) are lower soil, c and d (6) are upper soil, e, f and g, h (5T and 6T) are respective treated soil

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Fig. 6
figure 6

a SEM–EDS micrographs of soils of Balasore sites. a, b (1, 2) and c, d (1T 2T). b SEM–EDS micrographs of soils of Ganjam sites. a, b (3, 4) and c, d (3T, 4T). c SEM–EDS micrographs of soils of Puri sites. a, b (5, 6) and c, d (5T, 6T). d Mass fraction and atomic conc. percentage of (a) untreated and (b) treated soils of all study sites

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3.1.5 EDS analysis

Energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometer analysis enables one to identify and confirm the microminerals and inspect the distribution of these minerals within the soils. These individual spectra project additional basic minerals for better comparative scrutiny [17, 65]. However, based on this EDS analysis, the values may be different because of partial-quantitative character of EDS. The information acquired from EDS are not reliable. So, mutually SEM–EDS study gives comprehensive data about the change of surface structure in different soil samples [7, 61, 75]. In our outcomes (Fig. 6), diverse elemental composition in soil, like aluminum (Al), iron (Fe), silicon (Si), potassium (K), sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), barium (Ba), carbon (C), titanium (Ti), and oxygen (O), and their mass fraction and atomic percentage were measured by EDS. Soil samples from different location have different elements, which were analyzed by elemental ratios and types. In all soils the content of Si and O were more because of key elements of Si and SiO2 (Fig. 5). The contents of aluminum and Sodium were relatively stable in all the sites soil. Mg and Ca content of Ganjam and Puri sites was more as compared to that of BAL sites. But after treatment Mg and Ba are absent in all sites soil samples. The contents of K and Fe in clay loam soil of Puri and Ganjam were maximum than that of sandy soil of Balasore soil.

3.1.6 EDXRF analysis

The nutritive parameters of yields is represented by the biogeochemical appearance of the dirt, the limits of vegetation has to accumulation of components and ecological contamination [20, 76]. Investigating the macro and micronutrients has imperative to plant science experts and scientists for soil profiling and crop development. In this study, mean concentration of 19 nutrients were analyzed. Among the essential macronutrients phosphorus (P), sulfur (S), nitrogen (N), calcium (Ca), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), and some micronutrients manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), molybdenum (Mo), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), chlorine (Cl), boron (B), cobalt (Co) were focused. In depth soil of Balasore, 15 compounds were found followed by upper soil 18 compounds, while the highest numbers (19) of compounds were found in lower soil of Ganjam followed by upper soil (17) and similar numbers of compounds were seen in lower and upper soils of Puri districts (Tables 6 and 7). CO2, Al2O3, SiO2, K2O, CaO, TiO2, MnO, Fe2O3, Ni, Cu, ZnO and B were seen in all the sites where as few concentrations of Se was found only in upper and lower sites of Ganjam soil. MnO concentration was higher in lower and upper soil of Balasore followed by SiO2 while in Ganjam lower soil had maximum P2O5 followed by MnO, Cl and S. In upper soil, MnO was seen maximally followed by Cl and SiO2. In depth soil of Puri, Cl was found in the highest concentration followed by Ni, ZnO, SiO2 and Cu but Cl was maximum in upper soil of Puri (Table 6). After H2O2 treatment, MnO also maximum in upper and lower soil of Balasore and upper soil of Ganjam while P2O5 and MnO is the highest in Ganjam lower soil. Cl shown high concentration in lower and upper soils of Puri followed by Ni, ZnO, SiO2 and Cu (Table 7).

Table 6 Major and minor element composition of untreated soils of Odisha
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Table 7 Major and minor element composition of treated soils of Odisha
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3.2 Water sampling and analysis

The physicochemical properties of water samples of different coastal areas of Odisha are tabulated in Tables 8 and 9. All physical parameters of water were most essential for betel vine yard and had significant impact on growth of crop vegetation. Low and average temperature are necessary for Betel vine cultivation. So, coastal area climate of Odisha posed as suitable place for betel growth. The temperature ranged from 18 to 22 °C in Balasore, 19 to 22 °C in Ganjam and 17 to 20 °C in Puri district (Table 8).

Table 8 Physiochemical properties of water use in betel vine cultivation of Odisha
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Table 9 Total carbon, total organic carbon, inorganic carbon, and overall nitrogen content of water used in betel vine cultivation of Odisha
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3.2.1 TOC-TN analysis

The mean concentration along with standard deviation (SD) of total organic carbon (TOC), total carbon (TC), inorganic carbon (IC), and total nitrogen (TN) of BAL, PUR and GAN are depicted in Table 9. Overall concentrations of TOC are higher in BAL (15.12 ± 1.04) than PUR and GAN. Similarly TC and IC of BAL waters are maximum among all other sites. Total nitrogen (TN) of PUR samples are higher followed by GAN due to open and pond water systems. Minimum concentration of TOC, TC, IC, and TN are found in GAN sites due to industrial site and poor quality of cultivation method.

4 Discussions

Soil profile alterations within agro field influence the crop production as texture majorly affect productivity and management strategies. Irrigation is closely related to soil type and water holding capacity [77]. Now days, Soil texture varies because of supplement lost [56]. However, yield capacity of sandy soils are maximum than clay soils. Soil textures also affect pest management [20, 55, 56]. Temperature fluctuation in soils is because of more warmth limit and less heat conductivity of the soil [77]. At certain period, when top soil shows more heat during day time and less heat during night, soil and air temperature considerably differ for few times [49]. There is evidence of some extensive sensitive plants whose root improvement in less temperature soil [78], yet no authentication was started for root development in low temperature in comparison with hot [79]. Hence, the physicochemical parameters of soil were explored to get more information about morphological and genetical variation of betel leaves. This examination additionally gives progressively required data about ecological impacts influence on plant physiology. There are number of strategies are adopted to recognize the minerals by the conventional techniques such as X-ray diffraction, FTIR spectroscopy, and slim segment examination [6]. The FTIR studies of soils of different coastal districts of Odisha shows the various minerals present in soils as major constituents and in different compositions. The present outcomes also highlight the increased and decreased level of peak heights, which corresponds with the variation between treated and untreated samples. Coastal zones have significant soil and shoreline sands which contain the essential minerals aggregations. Mineralogical stores are the convergence of significant minerals got from the weathering of various rock gathered by wind or water [17, 69]. The FTIR range was utilized to demarcate the idea of useful gatherings which could impact the adsorption of the soil. The non destructive FTIR and XRD techniques can be utilized in the recognizable proof of mineralogical structure [11]. XRD examined on topographical entities illuminate the mineralogical changes subsequent to long term. From XRD analysis, many minerals are additionally identified which were not identified in FTIR spectroscopy. It is furthermore contemplated the crystalline characters of mineralogical composition of quartz matched with FTIR spectral pattern. So, XRD method is nondestructive and used in the identification of mineralogical composition [58, 80,81,82]. SEM with EDS (energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy) study is generally employed for uni-particle study. It provides useful information on the morphology and elemental composition of coastal soil samples [11]. The changes of microstructural variation of soils also studied by SEM microscopy [53]. The mineralogical properties and soil surface profile of coastal Odisha constitute a useful guide for proper cultivation of betel vine for its high mineralogical and nutritional value. For soil surface variation study, SEM–EDS is a precious tool. The differences of essential elemental composition constitute the multiplicity of textural nature of various coastal zones which is significant for the examination. Various micronutrients (Mn, Fe, Cu, and Zn) and macronutrients (P, K and N) are significant soil components that manage its richness [34]. In agroecosystem, catch crops are planted for better uptake of available nutrients in the soil [83]. Catch crops also enhance the biogeochemical cycling which is a signature of characteristic soil porosity, water holding capacity, aggregate stability and growth of microbial population [84]. Many other catch crops (e.g. turnip, radish, barley, clover, groundnut, oat) can fix nitrogen and enrich organic matter in the soil [85, 86]. Corn is used as catch crop in different plant densities in a green house because of the characteristic nutrient salt uptake associated with water use [87]. Thus, Piper betle L. can be used as a catch crop in coastal areas for optimal utilization of nutrients. The perennial stout twining climbers of Piper betle strongly hold the soil of sandy loam and heavy clayey loam type soils because of the adventitious roots arising from the nodes. Piper betle plantations in loamy soils of coastal areas not only act as suitable environment for nutrient assimilation but also strengthen the economic productivity. Additionally, the roots of Piper betle L. species stabilized the soil aggregates and control the soil erosion.

5 Conclusion

Our study highlighted that coastal climates are suitable for betel vine cultivation. The results of characterization of soil help for more harvesting of crop which is significant for possible agri-business creation. Treatments of soil indicate reduction of carbon contents. In addition, SEM and EDS analysis gives new insight to surface morphology of soils and their variations. Nature of water considered as chemical, physical, and organic qualities in connection to their supplements, substance constituents and land condition [77,78,79,80]. The agro-water sometimes is contaminated due to organic wastes, industrial effluents, urban and rural runoff, human activity, etc. [17, 88,89,90,91,92,93,94]. Improving vineyard water supply can be essential [95]. As Piper betle species is very precious medicinal plant, this research suggested not to use contaminated water for betel cultivation. Our results also helpful for the improvement in soil and water management in the vineyards.