Abstract
In countries like Malaysia and Indonesia, palm oil is a strategic commodity. A wide variety of products are made from palm oil, including food, cosmetics, as well as biodiesel production. It generates export revenues and helps many economies, especially Indonesia and Malaysia. The production of oil palm is influenced by both the changing climate and the prevalence of pests and diseases. Ganoderma boninense, the white rot fungus, is presently recognised as a significant barrier to the hugely profitable oil palm industry, especially in Southeast Asia and the rest of the production regions. The objective of this review is to examine the impact of G. boninense on oil palm production as induced by climate change. According to the findings of this review, when temperatures rise by 1–4 °C, oil palm yield declines by 10–41% and causes water stress in the palms. Ganoderma basal stem rot affects different parts of palm trees, resulting in a decrease in fresh fruit bunch yield as well as ecological and economic damage. G. boninense affects oil palm more noticeably in Malaysia and Indonesia, resulting in economic losses to farmers and reduced revenue to governments. Climate change projections indicate that G. boninense will have a greater impact on oil palm in the future, particularly from 2050 onwards. In Sumatra, some parts of Malaysia, and other oil palm growing regions, G. boninense is predicted to have a 41–100% impact by 2100. This study recommends appropriate selection of planting area, planting improve variety, best soil management practices, biological control, and the application of biotechnology. These will help in planning for climate change as well as the control and management of G. boninense.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
This study cites and acknowledges the data used within the text and the references. The data will be available upon request from the first author or corresponding author.
References
Abas R, Seman IA (2012) Economic impact of ganoderma incidence on Malaysian oil palm plantation – a case study in Johor. J Oil Palm Res 12:24–30
Abubakar A, Ishak MY, Makmom AA (2021) Impacts of and adaptation to climate change on the oil palm in Malaysia : a systematic review. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28:1–23
Abubakar A, Yusoff M, Abdullah AM (2022) Nexus between climate change and oil palm production in Malaysia : a review. Environ Monit Assess 194:1–22
Aderungboye FO (1977) Diseases of the oil. Palm Pans 23:305–326
Ahmadi P, Muharam FM, Ahmad K, Mansor S, Seman IA (2017) Early detection of ganoderma basal stem rot of oil palms using artificial neural network spectral analysis. Plant Dis 101:1009–1016
Ahmed A, Mohd YBI, Abdullah AM (2021) Oil palm in the face of climate change: a review of recommendations. IOP Conference Series: Environ Earth Sci 646:1–10
Akanbi FS, Yusof NA, Abdullah J et al (2017) Detection of quinoline in g. Boninense-infected plants using functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes: a field study. Sensors 17:1–14
Alexander A, Khai R, Lo S, Chong KP (2021) The effectiveness of selected biological control agents in controlling Ganoderma boninense. J Sustain Sci Manag 16:128–137
Ariffin D, Idris AS, Hassan AH (1989) Significance of the black line within oil palm tissue decayed by Ganoderma boninense. Elaeis 1:11–16
Ariffin D, Idris AS, Singh G (2000) Status of Ganoderma in oil palm. In. CABI, Wallingford, pp 49–68
Assis K, Chong KP, Idris AS, Ho CM (2016) Economic loss due to Ganoderma disease in oil palm. Int J Soc Behav Educ Econ Bus Industr Eng 10:604–608
Audet S (2010) Systematic cutting test of the genus Scutiger (Basidiomycota): Albatrellopsis, Albatrellus, Polyporoletus, Scutiger and description of six new genera. Mycotaxon 111:431–464
Azmi ANN, Bejo SK, Jahari M, Muharam FM, Yule I, Husin NA (2020) Early detection of Ganoderma boninense in oil palm seedlings using support vector machines. Remote Sens 12:1–21
Bijalwan A, Singh A, Chaudhary S, Tyagi A, Thakur MP, Thakur TK (2020) Insights of medicinal mushroom (Ganoderma lucidum): prospects and potential in India. Biodivers Int J 4:202–209
Bivi MR, Farhana MS, Khairulmazmi A, Idris A (2010) Control of Ganoderma boninense: a causal agent of basal stem rot disease in oil palm with endophyte bacteria in vitro. Int J Agric Biol 12:833–839
Breton F, Hasan Y, Hariadi LZ, Franqueville HD (2006) Characterization of parameters for the development of an early screening test for basal stem rot tolerance in oil palm progenies. J Oil Palm Res 106:24–36
Cao X, Xu X, Che H et al (2020) Eight Colletotrichum species, including a novel species, are associated with areca palm anthracnose in Hainan, China. Plant Dis 104:1369–1377
Chen ZY, Goh YK, Goh YK, Goh KJ (2017) Life expectancy of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) infected by Ganoderma boninense in coastal soils, Malaysia: a case study. Arch Phytopathol Plant Prot 50:598–612
Chidi NI, Adekunle AA, Samuel TO, Eziashi EI (2020) Molecular identification of secreted effector genes involved in African Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. elaeidis strains pathogenesis during screening nigerian susceptible and tolerant oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) genotypes. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 10:1–17
Chong KP (2011) Oil palm and Ganoderma: direction on future research. Verlag VDM, Muller GmbH and CO, Saarbrucken KG Germany
Chong KP, Dayou J, Alexander A (2017) Pathogenic nature of Ganoderma boninense and basal stem rot disease. In: Chong K, Dayou J, Alexander A (eds) Detection and Control of Ganoderma boninense, 3rd edn. Springer Cham, pp 5–12
Chung GF (2012) Effect of pests and diseases on oil palm yield. Palm oil: production, processing, characterization, and uses, 1st edn. Elsevier, pp 805–836
Corley RHV, Tinker PB (2003) The oil palm, 4th edn. Wiley Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, UK
Corley RHV, Tinker PB (2015) The oil palm. World Agricultural Series. Wiley Blackwell, London p 639
Darmono TW (1998) Development and survival of Ganoderma in oil palm tissue. In: Proceedings of the 1998 International Oil Palm Conference, Nusa Dua. Bali 23–25th September 1998. pp 613–617
Darmono TW (2000) Ganoderma in oil palm in Indonesia : current status and prospective use of antibodies for the detection of infection. Ganoderma diseases of perennial crops. CABI, UK, pp 249–266
Di Lucca AGT, Trinidad Chipana EF, Talledo Albújar MJ et al (2013) Slow wilt: another form of Marchitez in oil palm associated with trypanosomatids in Peru. Trop Plant Pathol 38:522–533
Dislich C, Keyel AC, Salecker J, Kisel Y, Meyer KM, Auliya M, Barnes AD, Corre MD, Darras K, Faust H, Hess B, Klasen S, Knohl A, Kreft H, Meijide A, Nurdiansyah F, Otten F, Pe G, Steinebach S, Wiegand K (2017) A review of the ecosystem functions in oil palm plantations, using forests as a reference system. Biol Rev 49:1539–1569
Elliott M, Broschat T (2000) Ganoderma butt rot of palms 1. Plant Pathol 11:1–7
Esiegbuya D (2020) Incidence of blast disease in oil palm plantation located in Akamkpa Local Government of Cross River State. SSRN Electron J 09:1–14
Fleiss S, Hill JK, Mcclean C, Lucey JM, Reynolds G (2017) Potential impacts of climate change on oil palm cultivation. A science-for-policy paper by the SEnSOR programme. Available via: http://www.sensorproject.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Climate-change-report-FINAL.pdf. Accessed 26 Mar 2021
Flood J, Cooper R, Rees R, Potter U, Hasan Y (2010) Some latest R & D on Ganoderma diseases in oil palm. IOPRI/MPOB Seminar: Advances in the Controlling of Devastating Disease of Oil Palm (Ganoderma) in South East Asia, Oct 2014, pp 1–21
Flood J, Hasan Y, Foster H (2003) Ganodermadiseases of oilpalm- an interpretation from Bah Lias Research Station. ThePlanter 78:689–710
Flood J, Hasan Y, Turner PD, O’Grady EB (2000) The spread of Ganoderma from infective sources in the filed and its implications for management of the disease in oil palm. In: Flood J, Bridge PD, Holderness M (eds) Ganoderma Diseases of Perennial Crops. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK, pp 101–112
Fowotade SA, Yusof NA, Abdullah J et al (2019) Enhanced electrochemical sensing of secondary metabolites in oil palms for early detection of Ganoderma boninense based on novel nanoparticle-chitosan functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotube platform. Sens Bio-Sensing Res 23:1–8
Goh YK, Marzuki NF, Tuan Pa TNF, Goh TK, Kee ZS, Goh YK, Yusof MT, Vujanovic V, Goh KJ (2020) Biocontrol and plant-growth-promoting traits of talaromyces apiculatus and clonostachys rosea consortium against ganoderma basal stem rot disease of oil palm. Microorganisms 8:1–20
Govender N, Mui-Yun W, Paterson RRM (2020) Opportunities for new-generation ganoderma boninense biotechnology. In: Nevalainen H (ed) Grand challenges in fungal biotechnology. Grand challenges in biology and biotechnology, 1st edn. Springer, Netherlands, pp 477–500
Govender NT, Wong MY (2017) Detection of oil palm root penetration by Agrobacterium mediated transformed Ganoderma boninense, expressing green fluorescent protein. Phytopathol 107:483–490
Gurung K, Dasila K, Pandey A, Bag N (2020) Curvularia eragrostidis, a new threat to large cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb.) causing leaf blight in Sikkim. J Biosci 45:1–8
Haryadi D, Hendra H (2019) The First report on basal stem rot disease causal pathogen in Asian Agri Group, North Sumatra, Indonesia. Trans Innov Sci Technol 6:141–149
Hasan Y, Turner PD (1998) The comparative importance of different oil palm tissues as infection sources for basal stem rot in replantings. Planter 74(864):119–135
Hushiarian R, Yusof NA, Dutse SW (2013) Detection and control of Ganoderma boninense: strategies and perspectives. Springerplus 2:1–12
Husin NA, Khairunniza-Bejo S, Abdullah AF, Kassim MSM, Ahmad D, Aziz MHA (2020) Classification of basal stem rot disease in oil palm plantations using terrestrial laser scanning data and machine learning. Agronomy 10:1–23
Idris AS, Kushairi A, Ismail S, Ariffin D (2004) Selection for partial resistance in oil palm progenies to Ganoderma basal stem rot. J Oil Palm Res 16:12–18
Jackson G (2022) Pacific Pests & Pathogens - Full Size Fact Sheets. Available via https://apps.lucidcentral.org/ppp/text/web_full/entities/oil_palm_basal_stem_rot_275.htm. Accessed 22 Feb 2021
Jackson L, van Noordwijk M, Bengtsson J, Foster W, Lipper L, Pulleman M, Said M, Snaddon J, Vodouhe R (2010) Biodiversity and agricultural sustainagility: from assessment to adaptive management. Curr Opin Environ Sustain 2:80–87
Kamu A, Khim PC, Abu SI, Gabda D, Chong MH (2021) Estimating the yield loss of oil palm due to ganoderma basal stem rot disease by using bayesian model averaging. J Oil Palm Res 33:46–55
Kamu A, Mun HC, Phin CK, Seman IA (2018) Identifying the early visible symptoms of the Ganoderma-infected oil palms: a case study on the infected palms which collapsed within twelve months after disease census. ASM Sci 11:156–163
Karsten PA (1881) Enumeratio Boletinearum et Polyporearum Fennicarum, systemate novo dispositarum. Rev Mycol (toulouse) 3:16–19
Lim TK, Chung GF, Ko WH (1992) Basal stem rot of oil palm caused by Ganoderma boninense. Plant Pathol Bulletin 1:147–52.
Lim HP, Fong YK (2005) Research on basal stem rot (BSR) of ornamental palms caused by basidiospores from Ganoderma boninense. Mycopathologia 159:171–179
Lim KH, Goh KJ, Chiu SB, Paramananthan S (2011) Agronomic principles and practices of oil palm cultivation. Agricultural Crop Trust, Malaysia
Mafia MI, Aminuzzaman FM, Chowdhury MSM, Tanni JF (2020) Occurrence, diversity and morphology of poroid wood decay by Ganoderma spp. from tropical moist deciduous forest region of Bangladesh. J Agric Nat Resour 3:160–174
Maizatul-Suriza M, Suhanah J, Madihah AZ et al (2021) Phylogenetic and pathogenicity evaluation of the marasmioid fungus Marasmius palmivorus causing fruit bunch rot disease of oil palm. For Pathol 51:1–17
Maluin FN, Hussein MZ, Idris AS (2020) An overview of the oil palm industry: challenges and some emerging opportunities for nanotechnology development. Agronomy 10:1–20
Mathias MA, Tonjock RK (2015) Ecology of basal stem rot disease of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) in Cameroon. J Agric for 3(5):208–215
Mercière M, Boulord R, Carasco-Lacombe C, Klopp C, Lee YP, Tan JS, Syed Alwee SSR, Zaremski AD, Franqueville H, Breton F, Camus-Kulandaivelu L (2017) About Ganoderma boninense in oil palm plantations of Sumatra and peninsular Malaysia: ancient population expansion, extensive gene flow and large scale dispersion ability. Fungal Biol 121:529–540
Mercière M, de Franqueville H, Ngo Baniny G, Purba A, Houssiau C, Grignard A (2015) Ganoderma species: a serious threat to African oil palm plantation, Responsible Tropical Agriculture, pp 1–2
Midot F, Lau SYL, Wong WC, Tung HJ, Yap ML, Lo ML, Jee MS, Dom SP, Melling L (2019) Genetic diversity and demographic history of Ganoderma boninense in oil palm plantations of Sarawak, Malaysia inferred from ITS regions. Microorganisms 7:1–17
Mohamed Azni INA, Sundram S, Ramachandran V (2019) Pathogenicity of Malaysian Phytophthora palmivora on cocoa, durian, rubber and oil palm determines the threat of bud rot disease. Forest Pathol 49:1–11
Mohan JE, Cowden CC, Baas P, Dawadi A, Frankson PT, Helmick K, Hughes E, Khan S, Lang A, Machmuller M, Taylor M, Witt CA (2014) Mycorrhizal fungi mediation of terrestrial ecosystem responses to global change: mini-review. Fungal Ecol 10:3–19
Mohd Z, Siti Z (2016) Isolation and identification of fungal pathogen causing leaf spot disease in oil palm at nursery stage. PhD thesis, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia
Mongabay (2021) Oil palm plantations a ‘threat to global health,’ says study on outbreaks. Available Via: https://news.mongabay.com/2021/05/oil-palm-plantations-a-threat-to-global-health-says-study-on-outbreaks/. Accessed 18 Jan 2021
Morand S, Lajaunie C (2021) Outbreaks of vector-borne and zoonotic diseases are associated with changes in forest cover and oil palm expansion at global scale. Front Vet Sci 8:1–11
Murphy DJ (2014) The future of oil palm as a major global crop: opportunities and challenges. J Oil Palm Res 26:1–24
Murphy DJ, Goggin K, Paterson RRM (2021) Oil palm in the 2020s and beyond: challenges and solutions. CABI Agric Biosci 2:1–22
Mustapha JC, Mazliham S, Boursier P (2011) Temporal analysis of basal stem rot disease in oil palm plantations: an analysis on peat soil. Int J Eng Technol 11:96–101
Naher L, Yusuf UK, Ismail A, Tan SG, Mondal MMA (2013) Ecological status of Ganoderma and basal stem rot disease of oil palms (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.). Aust J Crop Sci 7:1723–1727
Nambiappan B, Ismail A, Hashim N, Ismail N, Shahari DN, Idris NAN, Omar N, Salleh KM, Hassan NAM, Kushairi A (2018) Malaysia: 100 years of resilient palm oil economic performance. J Oil Palm Res 30:13–25
Odoh CK, Amapu TY, Orjiakor IP et al (2017) Assessment of mold contamination and physicochemical properties of crude palm oil sold in Jos, Nigeria. Food Sci Nutr 5:310–316
Oettli P, Behera SK, Yamagata T (2018) Climate based predictability of oil palm tree yield in Malaysia. Sci Rep 8:1–13
Ojemade AC, Okorji EC, Enete AA (2019) Difficulties in adaptation to climate change by oil palm farmers in Southern Nigeria. Afr J Agric Res 14:46–53
Okoro SU, Schickhoff U, Boehner J, Schneider UA, Huth NI (2017) Climate impacts on palm oil yields in the Nigerian Niger Delta. Eur J Agron 85:38–50
Oktarina SD, Nurkhoiry R, Pradiko I (2021) The effect of climate change to palm oil price dynamics: a supply and demand model. IOP Conference Series: Environ Earth Sc 782:1–9
Ortega Andrade S, Páez GT, Feria TP, Muñoz J (2017) Climate change and the risk of spread of the fungus from the high mortality of Theobroma cocoa in Latin America. Neotrop Biodivers 3:30–40
Pandey P, Singh A, Yadav P, Kumar P, Deepti B (2013) Role of biotechnology in plant diseases management : an overview. J Genet Environ Resour Conserv 1:215–221
Parveez GK, Rasid OA, Masani MY, Sambanthamurthi R (2015) Biotechnology of oil palm: strategies towards manipulation of lipid content and composition. Plant Cell Rep 34:533–543
Paterson RRM (2007) Ganoderma disease of oil palm-A white rot perspective necessary for integrated control. Crop Prot 26:1369–1376
Paterson RRM (2019a) Ganoderma boninense disease of oil palm to significantly reduce production after 2050 in sumatra if projected climate change occurs. Microorganisms 7:4–6
Paterson RRM (2019b) Ganoderma boninense disease deduced from simulation modelling with large data sets of future Malaysian oil palm climate. Phytoparasitica 3:1–11
Paterson RRM (2020a) Future scenarios for oil palm mortality and infection by Phytophthora palmivora in Colombia, Ecuador and Brazil, extrapolated to Malaysia and Indonesia. Phytoparasitica 48:513–523
Paterson RRM (2020b) Oil palm survival under climate change in Malaysia with future basal stem rot assessments. For Pathol 50:1–8
Paterson RRM, Sariah M, Lima N (2013a) How will climate change affect oil palm fungal diseases ? Crop Prot 46:113–120
Paterson RRM, Kumar L, Shabani F, Lima N (2017) World climate suitability projections to 2050 and 2100 for growing oil palm. J Agric Sci 155:659–702
Paterson RRM, Kumar L, Taylor S, Lima N (2015) Future climate effects on suitability for growth of oil palms in Malaysia and Indonesia. Sci Rep 5:1–11
Paterson RRM, Lima N (2018) Climate change affecting oil palm agronomy, and oil palm cultivation increasing climate change, require amelioration. Ecol Evol 8:452–461
Paterson RRM, Moen S, Lima N (2009) The feasibility of producing oil palm with altered lignin content to control Ganoderma disease. Phytopathol 157:649–656
Paterson RRM, Sariah M, Lima N (2013b) How will climate change affect oil palm fungal diseases? J Crop Prot 46:113–120
Pilotti CA, Gorea EA, Bonneau L (2018) Basidiospores as sources of inoculum in the spread of Ganoderma boninense in oil palm plantations in Papua New Guinea. Plant Pathol 67:1841–1849
Pilotti CA (2005) Stem rots of oil palm caused by Ganoderma boninense: Pathogen biology and epidemiology. Mycopathologia 159:129–137
Pilotti Carmel A, Sanderson FR, Aitken EAB, Armstrong W (2004) Morphological variation and host range of two Ganoderma species from Papua New Guinea. Mycopathologia 158:251–265
Pornsuriya C, Sunpapao A, Srihanant N, Worapattamasri K, Kittimorakul J, Phithakkit S, Petcharat V (2013) A survey of diseases and disorders in oil palm of Southern Thailand. Plant Pathol J 12:169–175
Rahamah Bivi MSH, Paiko AS, Khairulmazmi A, Akhtar MS, Idris AS (2016) Control of basal stem rot disease in oil palm by supplementation of calcium, copper, and salicylic acid. Plant Pathol J 32:396–406
Rakib MRM, Khairulmazmi A, Idris AS, Jalloh MB, Wahida NH (2017) Ganoderma species of basal and upper stem rots in oil palm (Elaeis Guineensis) in Sarawak. J Acad 5:27–35
Rao V, Lim CC, Chia CC, Teo KW (2003) Studies on Ganoderma spread and control. The Planter 79:367–383
Rees RW, Flood J, Hasan Y, Cooper RM (2007) Effects of inoculum potential, shading and soil temperature on root infection of oil palm seedlings by the basal stem rot pathogen Ganoderma boninense. Plant Pathol 56:862–870
Rees RW, Flood J, Hasan Y, Potter U, Cooper RM (2009) Basal stem rot of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis); mode of root infection and lower stem invasion by Ganoderma boninense. Plant Pathol 58:982–989
Rees RW, Flood J, Hasan Y, Wills MA, Cooper RM (2012) Ganoderma boninense basidiospores in oil palm plantations: evaluation of their possible role in stem rots of Elaeis guineensis. Plant Pathol 61:567–578
Rival A (2017) Breeding the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) for climate change. OCL - Oilseeds and Fats, Crops and Lipids 24:1–7
Rolph H, Wijesekara R, Lardner R, Abdullah F, Kirk PM, Holderness M, Bridge PD, Flood J (2000) Molecular variation in Ganoderma from oil palm, coconut and betelnut. In: Flood J, Bridge PD, Holderness M (eds) Ganoderma Diseases of Perennial Crops. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK, pp 205–221
Rozieta R, Sahibin AR, Wan MR (2015) Physico-chemical properties of soil at oil palm plantation area, Labu, Negeri Sembilan. AIP Conf Proc 1678:1–10
Sarkar MSK, Begum RA, Pereira JJ (2020) Impacts of climate change on oil palm production in Malaysia. Environ Sci Pollut Res 27:9760–9770. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-07601-1
Shanmuganathan S, Narayanan A, Mohamed M, Ibrahim R, Khalid H (2014a) A hybrid approach to modelling the climate change effects on Malaysia’s oil palm yield at the regional scale. Adv Intell Syst Comput 287:335–346
Shanmuganathan S, Narayanan A, Mohamed M, Ibrahim R, Khalid H (2014b) A hybrid approach to modelling the climate change effects on Malaysia’s oil palm yield at the regional scale. Adv Intell Syst 287:335–346
Sheil D, Casson A, Meijaard E, van Nordwijk M, Gaskell J, Sunderland-Groves J, Wertz K, Kanninen M (2009) The impacts and opportunities of oil palm in Southeast Asia: What do we know and what do we need to know? Occasional paper no. 51. CIFOR, Bogor, Indonesia
Siddiqui Y, Surendran A, Paterson RRM, Ali A, Ahmad K (2021) Current strategies and perspectives in detection and control of basal stem rot of oil palm. Saudi J Biol Sci 28:2840–2849
Siwar C, Ahmed F, Begum RA (2013) Climate change, agriculture and food security issues: Malaysian perspective. J Food Agric Environ 11:1118–1123
Subagio A, Foster HL (2003) Implications of Ganoderma disease on loss in stand and yield production of oil palm in North Sumatra. Proceedings of the MAPPS Conference (Aug 2003). Kuala Lumpur
Sundram S, Intan-Nur AMA (2017) South American Bud rot: a biosecurity threat to South East Asian oil palm. Crop Prot 101:58–67
Sunpapao A, Kittimorakul J, Pornsuriya C (2014) Disease Note: Identification of Curvularia oryzae as cause of leaf spot disease on oil palm seedlings in nurseries of Thailand. Phytoparasitica 42:529–533
Supriyanto P, Poromarto SH, Supyani (2020) The relationship of some characteristics of peat with oil palm basal stem rot (BSR) caused by Ganoderma in peatlands. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci 423:1–7
Teh CBS (2016) Availability, use, and removal of oil palm biomass in Indonesia. Report Prepared for the International Council on Clean Transportation, pp 1–39
Tengoua F, Bakoume C (2005) Basal stem rot and vascular wilt, two threat for oil palm sector in Cameroon. Planter 81:97–105
Thompson A (1931) Stem-rot of the oil palm in Malaya. US Government Printing Office
Torres GA, Sarria GA, Martinez G, Varon F, Drenth A, Guest DI (2016) Bud rot caused by Phytophthora palmivora: a destructive emerging disease of oil palm. Phytopathology 106:320–329
Tupaz-Vera A, Ayala-Diaz IM, Rincon V et al (2021) An integrated disease management of oil palms affected by bud rot results in shorter recovery times. Agronomy 11:1–13
Turner PD (1981) Oil palm diseases and disorders. Kuala Lumpur, Oxford University Press, p 281
Verheye W (2010) Growth and production of Oil Palm. In: Verheye W (ed) Land use, land cover and soil sciences. Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS). UNESCO-EOLSS Publishers, Oxford, UK
Wakefield EM (1920) Diseases of the oil palm in West Africa. Bull Miscellaneous Info (royal Gardens, Kew) 1920:306–308
Woods K (2015) Commercial Agriculture Expansion in Myanmar : Links to Deforestation, Conversion Timber, and Land Conflict. In Forest Trends Report Series (Issue March). Available via: https://www.forest-trends.org/publications/commercial-agriculture-expansion-in-myanmar-links-to-deforestation-conversion-timber-and-land-conflicts/. Accessed 03 Feb 2021
Zainal Z, Shamsudin MN, Mohamed ZA, Adam SU (2012) Economic impact of climate change on the Malaysian palm oil production. Trends Appl Sci Res 7:872–880
Zali M, Yudi Heryadi A, Nurlaila S, Fanani Z (2018) Assessment of leaf spot and anthracnose diseases in nurseries and it relationship with oil palm seedling ages. Int J Adv Multidiscip Res 5:45–55
Zhang Y, Jiang Y, Zhang M, Zhang L (2019) Ganoderma sinense polysaccharide: an adjunctive drug used for cancer treatment. Prog Mol Biol Transl Sci 163:165–177
Acknowledgements
I wish to acknowledge Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFUND) for sponsoring this review research. I am indebted to Dr. Mohd Yusoff Ishak and Prof. Mohd Kamal Uddin for their critical review towards this work.
Funding
The study was funded by the Tertiary Education Trust Fund, Nigeria (TETFUND).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Conceptualization, AA, and MYI; methodology, AA, and MYT; software, AA; MKU; validation, MYI; MK, and AiA.; formal analysis, AA; investigation, AA; resources, AA; data curation, AA, AiA and MYI; writing—original draft preparation, AA, MYI, MK; writing—review and editing, MYI; visualization, AiA; supervision, MYI, MKU; project administration, MYI; funding acquisition, AA; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Ethical approval
There was no human or animal participation, experimentation, or use of human data or tissues in this study.
Consent for publication
Neither children nor individual details were used in this study.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Abubakar, A., Ishak, M.Y., Bakar, A.A. et al. Ganoderma boninense basal stem rot induced by climate change and its effect on oil palm. Environmental Sustainability 5, 289–303 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42398-022-00244-7
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42398-022-00244-7