Abstract
Dan Olweus’ pioneering work on traditional bullying laid the foundation for how cyberbullying is defined and measured today. Many researchers believe that these two forms of bullying share some similarities. However, two perspectives have been outlined for the relationship between traditional bullying and cyberbullying--the extension perspective (predictors and outcomes of cyber and traditional bullying are similar) vs. the differences perspective (cyber and traditional bullying have unique patterns of relationships with predictors and outcomes). In the current study, we attempted to shed light on the debate about these two perspectives by addressing three questions: (1) Do cyber and traditional bullying have similar or unique predictors? (2) How do cyberbullying and traditional bullying relate to outcomes? and (3) Is there a bidirectional relationship between cyber and traditional bullying and “Outcomes”? We collected online survey data across two waves from 151 college students at two universities located in the US (n = 118 females, n = 32 males, n = 1 preferred not to disclose, M age = 21.68 years old, SD age = 3.73 years), focusing on known predictors, cyber and traditional forms of bullying, and outcomes. Results indicated relatively more support for the extension perspective across our three research questions: (1) Relatively more variables predicted both cyber and traditional bullying (self-esteem, school demands, university rule clarity, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy); (2) Both cyber and traditional bullying predicted similar outcomes (including deviant behavior, helping behavior, symptoms of anxiety, and symptoms of depression); and (3) Helping behavior and number of alcoholic beverages consumed predicted both cyberbullying victimization and traditional bullying victimization. Findings are discussed in terms of their implications for future research and practice.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
Data are available upon request from the authors.
Notes
Students with senior hours were selected because this study is part of a multi-year longitudinal study focusing on the transition between college and the workforce.
References
Acosta, J., Chinman, M., Ebener, P., Malone, P. S., Phillips, A., & Wilks, A. (2019). Understanding the relationship between perceived school climate and bullying: A mediator analysis. Journal of School Violence, 18(2), 200–215. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2018.1453820
Adomi, E. E., Eriki, J. A., Tiemo, P. A., & Akpojotor, L. O. (2016). Inci/dents of cyberbullying among library and information science (LIS) students at Delta State University, Abraka, Nigeria. International Journal of Digital Literacy Competence, 7, 52–63.
Agnew, R. (2001). Building on the foundation of general strain theory: Specifying the types of strain most likely to lead to crime and delinquency. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 38(4), 319–361. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427801038004001
Barlett, C. P. (2015). Predicting adolescents’ cyberbullying behavior: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Adolescence, 41, 86–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.02.006
Barlett, C. P., Gentile, D. A., & Chew, C. (2016). Predicting cyberbullying from anonymity. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 5(2), 171–180. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000055
Barlett, C. P., & Wright, M. (2018). Longitudinal relations among cyber, physical, and relational bullying and victimization: Comparing majority and minority ethnic youth. Journal of Child and Adolescent Trauma, 11, 49–59. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-017-0174-8
Baroncelli, A., Perkins, E. R., Ciucci, E., Frick, P. J., Patrick, C. J., & Sica, C. (2020). Triarchic model traits as predictors of bullying and cyberbullying in adolescence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260520934448
Baumeister, R. F., Smart, L., & Boden, J. M. (1996). Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of high self-esteem. Psychological Review, 103(1), 5–33. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.103.1.5
Brand, S., Felner, R., Shim, M., Seitsinger, A., & Dumas, T. (2003). Middle school improvement and reform: Development and validation of a school-level assessment of climate, cultural pluralism, and school safety. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(3), 570–588. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.3.570
Burt, S. A., & Alhabash, S. (2018). Illuminating the nomological network of digital aggression: Results from two studies. Aggressive Behavior, 44(2), 125–135. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21736
Butler, A. B., Dodge, K. D., & Faurote, E. J. (2010). College student employment and drinking: A daily study of work stressors, alcohol expectancies, and alcohol consumption. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 15(3), 291–303. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019822
Casper, D. M., & Card, N. A. (2017). Overt and relational victimization: A meta-analytic review of their overlap and associations with social–psychological adjustment. Child Development, 88(2), 466–483. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12621
Chen, L., Ho, S. S., & Lwin, M. O. (2016). A meta-analysis of factors predicting cyberbullying perpetration and victimization: From the social cognitive and media effects approach. New Media & Society, 19, 1194–1213. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444816634037
Chudal, R., Tiiri, E., Brunstein Klomek, A., Ong, S. H., Fossum, S., Kaneko, H., Kolaitis, G., Lesinskiene, S., Li, L., Huong, M. N., Praharaj, S. K., Sillanmaki, L., Slobodskaya, H. R., Srabstein, J. C., Wiguna, T., Zamani, Z., & Sourander, A. (2021). Victimization by traditional bullying and cyberbullying and the combination of these among adolescents in 13 European and Asian countries. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-021-01779-6
Cole, D. A., Zelkowitz, R. L., Nick, E., Martin, N. C., Roeder, K. M., Sinclair-McBride, K., & Spinelli, T. (2016). Longitudinal and incremental relation of cybervictimization to negative self-cognitions and depressive symptoms in young adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44(7), 1321–1332. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-015-0123-7
Cross, D., Lester, L., & Barnes, A. (2015). A longitudinal study of the social and emotional predictors and consequences of cyber and traditional bullying victimisation. International Journal of Public Health, 60(2), 207–217. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-015-0655-1
Dempsey, A. G., Sulkowski, M. L., Nichols, R., & Storch, E. A. (2009). Differences between peer victimization in cyber and physical settings and associated psychosocial adjustment in early adolescence. Psychology in the Schools, 46, 962–972. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20437
Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901
Fanti, K. A., Demetriou, A. G., & Hawa, V. V. (2012). A longitudinal study of cyberbullying: Examining risk and protective factors. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9(2), 168–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2011.643169
Fanti, K. A., & Henrich, C. C. (2015). Effects of self-esteem and narcissism on bullying and victimization during early adolescence. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 35(1), 5–29. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431613519498
Farley, S., Coyne, I., Axtell, C., & Sprigg, C. (2016). Design, development and validation of a Workplace Cyberbullying Measure, the WCM. Work & Stress, 30(4), 293–317. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678373.2016.1255998
Gamez-Guadix, M., Orue, I., Smith, P. K., & Calvete, E. (2013). Longitudinal and reciprocal relations of cyberbullying with depression, substance use, and problematic internet use among adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 53, 446–452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.03.030
Gardella, J. H., Fisher, B. W., & Teurbe-Tolon, A. R. (2017). A systematic review and meta-analysis of cyber-victimization and educational outcomes for adolescents. Review of Educational Research, 87(2), 283–308. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654316689136
Gini, G., Card, N. A., & Pozzoli, T. (2018). A meta-analysis of the differential relations of traditional and cyber-victimization with internalizing problems. Aggressive Behavior, 44(2), 185–198. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21742
Giumetti, G. W., & Kowalski, R. M. (2015). Cyberbullying matters: Examining the incremental impact of cyberbullying on outcomes over and above traditional bullying. In S. Yubero, E. Larranaga, & R. Navarro (Eds.), Cyberbullying across the globe: Gender, family, and mental health. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-25552-1_6
Giumetti, G. W., Kowalski, R. M., & Feinn, R. S. (2021). Predictors and outcomes of cyberbullying among college students: A two wave study. Aggressive Behavior. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21992
Guo, S. (2021). A comparison of traditional victims, cyber victims, traditional-cyber victims, and uninvolved adolescents: A social-ecological framework. Child & Youth Care Forum, 50(5), 925–945. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-021-09604-6
Hay, C., Meldrum, R., & Mann, K. (2010). Traditional bullying, cyber bullying, and deviance: A general strain theory approach. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 26(2), 130–147. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986209359557
Hemphill, S. A., Tollit, M., Kotevski, A., & Heerde, J. A. (2015). Predictors of traditional and cyber-bullying victimization: A longitudinal study of Australian secondary school students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30(15), 2567–2590. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260514553636
Hesapcioglu, S., & Ercan, F. (2017). Traditional and cyberbullying co-occurrence and its relationship to psychiatric symptoms. Pediatrics International, 59(1), 16–22. https://doi.org/10.1111/ped.13067
Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W. (2007). Offline consequences of online victimization: School violence and delinquency. Journal of School Violence, 6(3), 89–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J202v06n03_06
Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. (2008). Cyberbullying: An exploratory analysis of factors related to offending and victimization. Deviant Behavior, 29, 129–156. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639620701457816
Holfeld, B., & Mishna, F. (2019). Internalizing symptoms and externalizing problems: Risk factors for or consequences of cyber victimization? Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 48(3), 567–580. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-018-0974-7
Holfeld, B., & Mishna, F. (2021). The development of post-traumatic stress symptoms among adolescents who experience cyber and traditional victimization over time. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-021-01394-3
Jolliffe, D., & Farrington, D. P. (2006). Examining the relationship between low empathy and bullying. Aggressive Behavior, 32(6), 540–550. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20154
Jones, D. N., & Paulhus, D. L. (2014). Introducing the Short Dark Triad (SD3): A brief measure of dark personality traits. Assessment, 21(1), 28–41. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191113514105
Katz, I., Lemish, D., Cohen, R., & Arden, A. (2019). When parents are inconsistent: Parenting style and adolescents’ involvement in cyberbullying. Journal of Adolescence, 74, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.04.006
Khong, J. Z. N., Tan, Y. R., Elliott, J. M., Fung, D. S. S., Sourander, A., & Ong, S. H. (2020). Traditional victims and cybervictims: Prevalence, overlap, and association with mental health among adolescents in Singapore. School Mental Health, 12(1), 145–155. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-019-09337-x
Kisamore, J. L., Jawahar, I. M., Liguori, E. W., Mharapara, T. L., & Stone, T. H. (2010). Conflict and abusive workplace behaviors: The moderating effects of social competencies. The Career Development International, 15(6), 583–600. https://doi.org/10.1108/13620431011084420
König, A., Gollwitzer, M., & Steffgen, G. (2010). Cyberbullying as an act of revenge? Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 20(2), 210–224. https://doi.org/10.1375/ajgc.20.2.210
Kowalski, R. M., Giumetti, G. W., Schroeder, A. N., & Lattanner, M. R. (2014). Bullying in the digital age: A critical review and meta-analysis of cyberbullying research among youth. Psychological Bulletin, 140(4), 1073–1137. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035618
Kowalski, R. M., & Limber, S. P. (2013). Psychological, physical, and academic correlates of cyberbullying and traditional bullying. Journal of Adolescent Health, 53(1, Suppl), S13–S20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.09.018
Kowalski, R. M., & McCord, A. (2020). Perspectives on cyberbullying: Same or different. In L. Green (Ed.), The Routledge companion to digital media and children. Routledge.
Kowalski, R. M., Morgan, C. A., & Limber, S. E. (2012). Traditional bullying as a potential warning sign of cyberbullying. School Psychology International, 33, 505–519. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034312445244
Kritsotakis, G., Papanikolaou, M., Androulakis, E., & Philalithis, A. E. (2017). Associations of bullying and cyberbullying with substance use and sexual risk taking in young adults: Bullying, cyberbullying, and health risk behaviors. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 49(4), 360–370. https://doi.org/10.1111/jnu.12299
Kuper, H., & Marmot, M. (2003). Job strain, job demands, decision latitude, and risk of coronary heart disease within the Whitehall II study. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 57(2), 147–153. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.57.2.147
Lee, K., & Allen, N. J. (2002). Organizational citizenship behavior and workplace deviance: The role of affect and cognitions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(1), 131–142. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.87.1.131
Lovibond, S. H., & Lovibond, P. F. (1995). Manual for the depression anxiety & stress scales (2nd ed.). Psychology Foundation.
McCuddy, T., & Esbensen, F.-A. (2017). After the bell and into the night: The link between delinquency and traditional, cyber-, and dual-bullying victimization. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 54(3), 409–441. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427816683515
Mehari, K. R., Farrell, A. D., & Le, A. H. (2014). Cyberbullying among adolescents: Measures in search of a construct. Psychology of Violence, 4(4), 399–415. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037521
Mitchell, K. J., Segura, A., Jones, L. M., & Turner, H. A. (2018). Poly-victimization and peer harassment involvement in a technological world. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 33(5), 762–788. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517744846
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2017). Mplus: Statistical analysis with latent variables: User's guide (Version 8). Authors.
Notelaers, G., Van der Heijden, B., Hoel, H., & Einarsen, S. (2019). Measuring bullying at work with the short-negative acts questionnaire: Identification of targets and criterion validity. Work & Stress, 33, 58–75. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678373.2018.1457736
Olweus, D. (1993). Bullying at school: What we know and what we can do. Blackwell.
Olweus, D. (2012). Cyberbullying: An overrated phenomenon. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9, 520–538.
Olweus, D. (2013). School bullying: Development and some important challenges. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 9, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185516
Olweus, D., & Limber, S. (2018). Some problems with cyberbullying research. Current Opinion in Psychology, 19, 139–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.04.012
Orue, I., & Calvete, E. (2019). Psychopathic traits and moral disengagement interact to predict bullying and cyberbullying among adolescents. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34(11), 2313–2332. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516660302
Pallant, J. (2016). SPSS survival manual (6th ed.). Open-Up University Press.
Quiñones, M. A. (1995). Pretraining context effects: Training assignment as feedback. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80(2), 226–238. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.80.2.226
Rice, E., Petering, R., Rhoades, H., Winetrobe, H., Goldbach, J., Plant, A., Montoya, J., & Kordic, T. (2015). Cyberbullying perpetration and victimization among middle-school students. American Journal of Public Health, 105(3), e66–e72. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2014.302393
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton University Press.
Sánchez, F. C., Navarro-Zaragoza, J., Ruiz-Cabello, A. L., Romero, M. F., & Maldonado, A. L. (2017). Association between bullying victimization and substance use among college students in Spain. Adicciones, 29(1), 22–32. https://doi.org/10.20882/adicciones.827
Schenk, A. M., & Fremouw, W. J. (2012). Prevalence, psychological impact, and coping of cyberbully victims among college students. Journal of School Violence, 11(1), 21–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2011.630310
Schmitt, N. (1996). Uses and abuses of coefficient alpha. Psychological Assessment, 8(4), 350–353. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.8.4.350
Selkie, E. M., Kota, R., Chan, Y., & Moreno, M. (2015). Cyberbullying, depression, and problem alcohol use in female college students: A multisite study. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, & Social Networking, 18(2), 79–86. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2014.0371
Shaheen, A. M., Hamdan, K. M., Albqoor, M., Othman, A. K., Amre, H. M., & Hazeem M. N. A. (2019). Perceived social support from family and friends and bullying victimization among adolescents. Children and Youth Services Review, 107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.104503
Smith, P. K. (2013). School bullying. Sociologia, Problemas E Praticas, 71, 81–98. https://doi.org/10.7458/SPP2012702332
Smith, P. K., Mahdavi, J., Carvalho, M., Fisher, S., Russell, S., & Tippett, N. (2008). Cyberbullying: Its nature and impact in secondary school pupils. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49(4), 376–385. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01846.x
Spector, P. E., Bauer, J. A., & Fox, S. (2010). Measurement artifacts in the assessment of counterproductive work behavior and organizational citizenship behavior: Do we know what we think we know? Journal of Applied Psychology, 95, 781–790. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019477
van Geel, M., Goemans, A., Toprak, F., & Vedder, P. (2017). Which personality traits are related to traditional bullying and cyberbullying? A study with the Big Five, Dark Triad and sadism. Personality and Individual Differences, 106, 231–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.10.063
Varghese, M. E., & Pistole, M. C. (2017). College student cyberbullying: Self-esteem, depression, loneliness, and attachment. Journal of College Counseling, 20(1), 7–21. https://doi.org/10.1002/jocc.12055
Varjas, K., Henreich, C. C., & Meyers, J. (2009). Urban middle school students’ perceptions of bullying, cyberbullying, and school safety. Journal of School Violence, 8, 159–176. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220802074165
Vazsonyi, A. T., Machackova, H., Sevcikova, A., Smahel, D., & Cerna, A. (2012). Cyberbullying in context: Direct and indirect effects by low self-control across 25 European countries. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9(2), 210–227. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2011.644919
Waasdorp, T. E., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2015). The overlap between cyberbullying and traditional bullying. Journal of Adolescent Health, 56(5), 483–488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.12.002
Wigderson, S., & Lynch, M. (2013). Cyber- and traditional peer victimization: Unique relationships with adolescent well-being. Psychology of Violence, 3(4), 297. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033657
Williford, A., Orsi, R., DePaolis, K. J., & Isen, D. (2018). Cyber and traditional peer victimization: Examining unique associations with children’s internalizing difficulties. Children and Youth Services Review, 93, 51–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.07.001
Wright, M. F. (2016). Cyber victimization on college campuses: Longitudinal associations with suicidal ideation, depression, and anxiety. Criminal Justice Review, 41(2), 190–203. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734016816634785
Yagil, D., & Ben-Zur, H. (2008). Breaching the contract: Aggressive interpersonal behaviors in paternalistic relationships. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 16(1), 55–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926770801920727
Yang, S.-J., Stewart, R., Kim, J.-M., Kim, S.-W., Shin, I.-S., Dewey, M. E., Maskey, S., & Yoon, J.-S. (2013). Differences in predictors of traditional and cyber-bullying: A 2-year longitudinal study in Korean school children. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 22(5), 309–318. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-012-0374-6
Zaborskis, A., Ilionsky, G., Tesler, R., & Heinz, A. (2019). The association between cyberbullying, school bullying, and suicidality among adolescents: Findings from the cross-national study HBSC in Israel, Lithuania, and Luxembourg. Crisis, 40(2), 100–114. https://doi.org/10.1027/0227-5910/a000536
Zimet, G. D., Dahlem, N. W., Zimet, S. G., & Farley, G. K. (1988). The multidimensional scale of perceived social support. Journal of Personality Assessment, 52(1), 30–41. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa5201_2
Funding
Funding for the gift cards was provided by both universities.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Robin Kowalski was involved in study conceptualization, data collection, and manuscript write-up. Gary Giumetti was involved in study conceptualization, data collection, and manuscript write-up. Richard Feinn was involved in data analysis and manuscript write-up.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics Approval
Ethics approval was provided by the Institutional Review Board at both universities involved in the study.
Consent to Participate
All participants provided consent to participate in the study.
Competing Interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Kowalski, R.M., Giumetti, G.W. & Feinn, R.S. Is Cyberbullying An Extension of Traditional Bullying or a Unique Phenomenon? A Longitudinal Investigation Among College Students. Int Journal of Bullying Prevention 5, 227–244 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42380-022-00154-6
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42380-022-00154-6