Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Adults’ Perceived Severity and Likelihood of Intervening in Cyberbullying

  • Original Article
  • Published:
International Journal of Bullying Prevention Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Cyberbullying research focuses largely on children and adolescents. Relatively little is known about cyberbullying among adults, particularly their perceived severity and likelihood of intervening in different cyberbullying acts. This research presents two studies that aimed to address these gaps. Utilizing Willard’s (2007) classification, study 1 developed a scale to measure perceived severity of cyberbullying. Principal component analysis of participants’ (n = 389; aged 18–70) severity ratings identified four behavioral groupings: defamation, harassment, pestering, and exclusion. A repeated-measures within-subject ANOVA showed that defamation was rated most severe followed by harassment, and perceived severity was higher among females than males. Study 2 extended this by developing visual cyberbullying scenarios of defamation and harassment, which participants (n = 122; aged 18–64) rated for perceived severity and likelihood of intervening. Participants also completed measures of empathy, moral sensitivity, and moral disengagement to determine whether these variables influenced ratings. Unlike study 1, no significant differences in ratings occurred for defamation and harassment, but multiple regressions showed that moral disengagement predicted lower severity ratings and lower likelihood of intervening in harassment scenarios. Older age also predicted higher likelihood of intervention in online harassment. None of the variables predicted defamation ratings, highlighting the importance of examining different cyberbullying acts in more depth. Cyberbullying is clearly a concern among adults, with 75% witnessing cyberbullying, 29% being a victim, and 15% a perpetrator during adulthood. Understanding adults’ perceptions and intended reactions to different cyberbullying acts has important implications for intervention strategies.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ang, R. P., & Goh, D. H. (2010). Cyberbullying among adolescents: The role of affective and cognitive empathy, and gender. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 41(4), 387–397

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1990). Selective activation and disengagement of moral control. Journal of Social Issues, 46(1), 27–46

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1991). Social cognitive theory of moral thought and action. Handbook of Moral Behavior and Development, 1, 45–103

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (2002). Selective moral disengagement in the exercise of moral agency. Journal of Moral Education, 31(2), 101–119

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bastiaensens, S., Vandebosch, H., Poels, K., Van Cleemput, K., Desmet, A., & De Bourdeaudhuij, I. (2014). Cyberbullying on social network sites. An experimental study into bystanders’ behavioural intentions to help the victim or reinforce the bully. Computers in Human Behavior, 31, 259–271

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bauman, S., & Newman, M. L. (2013). Testing assumptions about cyberbullying: Perceived distress associated with acts of conventional and cyber bullying. Psychology of violence, 3(1), 27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bonanno, R., & Hymel, S. (2013). Cyber bullying and internalizing difficulties: Above and beyond the impact of traditional forms of bullying. Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 42(5), 685–697. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-9937-1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boulton, M. J., Hardcastle, K., Down, J., Fowles, J., & Simmonds, J. A. (2014). A comparison of preservice teachers’ responses to cyber versus traditional bullying scenarios: Similarities and differences and implications for practice. Journal of Teacher Education, 65(2), 145–155

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brewer, G., & Kerslake, J. (2015). Cyberbullying, self-esteem, empathy and loneliness. Computers in Human Behavior, 48, 255–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.01.073

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brody, N., & Vangelisti, A. L. (2016). Bystander intervention in cyberbullying. Communication Monographs, 83(1), 94–119

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Camerini, A.-L., Marciano, L., Carrara, A., & Schulz, P. J. (2020). Cyberbullying perpetration and victimization among children and adolescents: A systematic review of longitudinal studies. Telematics and Informatics, 49, 101362. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2020.101362

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, M., Spears, B., Slee, P., Butler, D., & Kift, S. (2012). Victims’ perceptions of traditional and cyberbullying, and the psychosocial correlates of their victimisation. Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, 17(3–4), 389–401. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632752.2012.704316

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carré, A., Stefaniak, N., D’ambrosio, F., Bensalah, L., & Besche-Richard, C. (2013). The Basic Empathy Scale in Adults (BES-A): Factor structure of a revised form. Psychological Assessment, 25(3), 679

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, L. M., Cheng, W., & Ho, H.-C. (2015). Perceived severity of school bullying in elementary schools based on participants’ roles. Educational Psychology, 35(4), 484–496

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Del Rey, R., Lazuras, L., Casas, J. A., Barkoukis, V., Ortega-Ruiz, R., & Tsorbatzoudis, H. (2016). Does empathy predict (cyber) bullying perpetration, and how do age, gender and nationality affect this relationship? Learning and Individual Differences, 45, 275–281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2015.11.021

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeSmet, A., Bastiaensens, S., Van Cleemput, K., Poels, K., Vandebosch, H., & De Bourdeaudhuij, I. (2012). Mobilizing bystanders of cyberbullying: An exploratory study into behavioural determinants of defending the victim. Annual Review of Cybertherapy and Telemedicine, 10, 58–63

    Google Scholar 

  • DiFranzo, D., Taylor, S. H., Kazerooni, F., Wherry, O. D., & Bazarova, N. N. (2018). Upstanding by design: Bystander intervention in cyberbullying. Proceedings of the 2018 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 1–12

  • Dooley, J. J., Pyżalski, J., & Cross, D. (2009). Cyberbullying versus face-to-face bullying: A theoretical and conceptual review. Zeitschrift Für Psychologie/journal of Psychology, 217(4), 182–188

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Doucette, J. D. (2013). Gender and grade differences in how high school students experience and perceive cyberbullying. 84

  • Eldridge, M. A., & Jenkins, L. N. (2019). The bystander intervention model: Teacher intervention in traditional and cyber bullying. International Journal of Bullying Prevention, 1–11

  • Ellis, A. A., & Shute, R. (2007). Teacher responses to bullying in relation to moral orientation and seriousness of bullying. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(3), 649–663

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Farley, S., Coyne, I., Sprigg, C., Axtell, C., & Subramanian, G. (2015). Exploring the impact of workplace cyberbullying on trainee doctors. Medical Education, 49(4), 436–443. https://doi.org/10.1111/medu.12666

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gini, G., Pozzoli, T., & Hauser, M. (2011). Bullies have enhanced moral competence to judge relative to victims, but lack moral compassion. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(5), 603–608

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gini, G., Pozzoli, T., & Hymel, S. (2014). Moral disengagement among children and youth: A meta-analytic review of links to aggressive behavior. Aggressive Behavior, 40(1), 56–68

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, J., Haidt, J., Koleva, S., Motyl, M., Iyer, R., Wojcik, S. P., & Ditto, P. H. (2013). Moral foundations theory: The pragmatic validity of moral pluralism. In Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 47, pp. 55–130). Elsevier

  • Graham, J., Haidt, J., & Nosek, B. A. (2009). Liberals and conservatives rely on different sets of moral foundations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(5), 1029

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gramlich, J. (2019). 10 facts about Americans and Facebook. Pew Research Center. Fact Tank. Available Online https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/05/16/facts-about-americans-and-facebook

  • Hazler, R. J., Miller, D. L., Carney, J. V., & Green, S. (2001). Adult recognition of school bullying situations. Educational Research, 43(2), 133–146

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hektner, J. M., & Swenson, C. A. (2012). Links from teacher beliefs to peer victimization and bystander intervention: Tests of mediating processes. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 32(4), 516–536

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hellfeldt, K., López-Romero, L., & Andershed, H. (2020). Cyberbullying and psychological well-being in young adolescence: The potential protective mediation effects of social support from family, friends, and teachers. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(1), 45

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hymel, S., Rocke-Henderson, N., & Bonanno, R. A. (2005). Moral disengagement: A framework for understanding bullying among adolescents. Journal of Social Sciences, 8(1), 1–11

    Google Scholar 

  • Jadambaa, A., Thomas, H. J., Scott, J. G., Graves, N., Brain, D., & Pacella, R. (2019). Prevalence of traditional bullying and cyberbullying among children and adolescents in Australia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 53(9), 878–888. https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867419846393

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jolliffe, D., & Farrington, D. P. (2006a). Examining the relationship between low empathy and bullying. Aggressive Behavior: Official Journal of the International Society for Research on Aggression, 32(6), 540–550

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jolliffe, D., & Farrington, D. P. (2006b). Development and validation of the Basic Empathy Scale. Journal of Adolescence, 29(4), 589–611

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kärnä, A., Voeten, M., Little, T. D., Poskiparta, E., Alanen, E., & Salmivalli, C. (2011). Going to scale: A nonrandomized nationwide trial of the KiVa antibullying program for grades 1–9. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 79(6), 796

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kowalski, R. M., & Limber, S. P. (2013). Psychological, physical, and academic correlates of cyberbullying and traditional bullying. Journal of Adolescent Health, 53(1), S13–S20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.09.018

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kowalski, R. M., Toth, A., & Morgan, M. (2018). Bullying and cyberbullying in adulthood and the workplace. The Journal of Social Psychology, 158(1), 64–81. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2017.1302402

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krevans, J., & Gibbs, J. C. (1996). Parents’ use of inductive discipline: Relations to children’s empathy and prosocial behavior. Child Development, 67(6), 3263–3277.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lazuras, L., Pyżalski, J., Barkoukis, V., & Tsorbatzoudis, H. (2012). Empathy and moral disengagement in adolescent cyberbullying: Implications for educational intervention and pedagogical practice. Wydawnictwo Naukowe UAM. https://repozytorium.amu.edu.pl/handle/10593/5894

  • Machmutow, K., Perren, S., Sticca, F., & Alsaker, F. D. (2012). Peer victimisation and depressive symptoms: Can specific coping strategies buffer the negative impact of cybervictimisation? Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, 17(3–4), 403–420. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632752.2012.704310

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Menesini, E., Nocentini, A., Palladino, B. E., Frisén, A., Berne, S., Ortega-Ruiz, R., Calmaestra, J., Scheithauer, H., Schultze-Krumbholz, A., Luik, P., Naruskov, K., Blaya, C., Berthaud, J., & Smith, P. K. (2012). Cyberbullying definition among adolescents: A comparison across six European countries. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 15(9), 455–463. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2012.0040

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mishna, F., Cook, C., Gadalla, T., Daciuk, J., & Solomon, S. (2010). Cyber bullying behaviors among middle and high school students. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 80(3), 362–374. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.2010.01040.x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mishna, F., Scarcello, I., Pepler, D., & Wiener, J. (2005). Teachers’ understanding of bullying. Canadian Journal of Education/Revue Canadienne de l’éducation, 718–738

  • Moore, C., Detert, J. R., Klebe Treviño, L., Baker, V. L., & Mayer, D. M. (2012). Why employees do bad things: Moral disengagement and unethical organizational behavior. Personnel Psychology, 65(1), 1–48

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nixon, C. L. (2014). Current perspectives: The impact of cyberbullying on adolescent health. Adolescent Health, Medicine and Therapeutics, 5, 143–158. https://doi.org/10.2147/AHMT.S36456

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Obermaier, M., Fawzi, N., & Koch, T. (2016). Bystanding or standing by? How the number of bystanders affects the intention to intervene in cyberbullying. New Media & Society, 18(8), 1491–1507. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444814563519

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Office for National Statistics. (2020). Online bullying in England and Wales: Year ending March 2020. Available Online https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/bulletins/onlinebullyinginenglandandwales/yearendingmarch2020

  • Olenik-Shemesh, D., Heiman, T., & Eden, S. (2017). Bystanders’ behavior in cyberbullying episodes: Active and passive patterns in the context of personal–socio-emotional factors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 32(1), 23–48. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515585531

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Omnicore Agency. (2021). Facebook by the numbers: Stats, demographics & fun facts. Available Online https://www.omnicoreagency.com/facebook-statistics

  • Ortega, R., Elipe, P., Mora-Merchán, J. A., Genta, M. L., Brighi, A., Guarini, A., Smith, P. K., Thompson, F., & Tippett, N. (2012). The emotional impact of bullying and cyberbullying on victims: A European cross-national study: Emotional impact of bullying and cyberbullying. Aggressive Behavior, 38(5), 342–356. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21440

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Palladino, B. E., Menesini, E., Nocentini, A., Luik, P., Naruskov, K., Ucanok, Z., Dogan, A., Schultze-Krumbholz, A., Hess, M., & Scheithauer, H. (2017). Perceived severity of cyberbullying: Differences and similarities across four countries. Frontiers in Psychology, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01524

  • Perren, S., & Gutzwiller-Helfenfinger, E. (2012). Cyberbullying and traditional bullying in adolescence: Differential roles of moral disengagement, moral emotions, and moral values. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9(2), 195–209. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2011.643168

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pew Research Center. (2019). Social media fact sheet. Available Online https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/fact-sheet/social-media/

  • Popovac, M. (2016). Safe to surf?: Cyberbullying, online risks and parental mediation: A comparison between adolescent reports and parent perceptions in the United Kingdom and South Africa [PhD Thesis]. University of Buckingham

  • Popovac, M. (2017). Beyond the school gates: Experiences of cyberaggression and cyberbullying among adolescents in the UK. Available Online https://www.buckingham.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Beyond-the-School-Gates_Cyberaggression-and-bullying.pdf

  • Pornari, C. D., & Wood, J. (2010). Peer and cyber aggression in secondary school students: The role of moral disengagement, hostile attribution bias, and outcome expectancies. Aggressive Behavior: Official Journal of the International Society for Research on Aggression, 36(2), 81–94

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Renati, R., Berrone, C., & Zanetti, M. A. (2012). Morally disengaged and unempathic: Do cyberbullies fit these definitions? An exploratory study. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15(8), 391–398

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Runions, K. C., & Bak, M. (2015). Online moral disengagement, cyberbullying, and cyber-aggression. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 18(7), 400–405

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Salmivalli, C., & Poskiparta, E. (2012). Making bullying prevention a priority in Finnish schools: The KiVa antibullying program. New Directions for Youth Development, 2012(133), 41–53

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Slonje, R., & Smith, P. K. (2008). Cyberbullying: Another main type of bullying? Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 49(2), 147–154

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Slonje, R., Smith, P. K., & Frisén, A. (2013). The nature of cyberbullying, and strategies for prevention. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(1), 26–32

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, P. K., Mahdavi, J., Carvalho, M., Fisher, S., Russell, S., & Tippett, N. (2008). Cyberbullying: Its nature and impact in secondary school pupils. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49(4), 376–385

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, A. & Anderson, M. (2018). Social media use in 2018. Pew Research Center. Available Online https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2018/03/01/social-media-use-in-2018/

  • Staude-Müller, F., Hansen, B., & Voss, M. (2012). How stressful is online victimization? Effects of victim’s personality and properties of the incident. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9(2), 260–274. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2011.643170

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sticca, F., & Perren, S. (2013). Is cyberbullying worse than traditional bullying? Examining the differential roles of medium, publicity, and anonymity for the perceived severity of bullying. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42(5), 739–750

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thornberg, R., & Jungert, T. (2013). Bystander behavior in bullying situations: Basic moral sensitivity, moral disengagement and defender self-efficacy. Journal of Adolescence, 36(3), 475–483

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thornberg, R., & Jungert, T. (2014). School bullying and the mechanisms of moral disengagement. Aggressive Behavior, 40(2), 99–108

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thornberg, R., Pozzoli, T., Gini, G., & Jungert, T. (2015). Unique and interactive effects of moral emotions and moral disengagement on bullying and defending among school children. The Elementary School Journal, 116(2), 322–337

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tokunaga, R. S. (2010). Following you home from school: A critical review and synthesis of research on cyberbullying victimization. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(3), 277–287

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Cleemput, K., Vandebosch, H., & Pabian, S. (2014). Personal characteristics and contextual factors that determine “helping”, “joining in”, and “doing nothing” when witnessing cyberbullying: Bystander behavior in cyberbullying. Aggressive Behavior, 40(5), 383–396. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21534

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walker, J. A., & Jeske, D. (2016). Understanding bystanders’ willingness to intervene in traditional and cyberbullying scenarios. International Journal of Cyber Behavior, Psychology and Learning (IJCBPL), 6(2), 22–38

  • Willard, N. E. (2007). Cyberbullying and cyberthreats: Responding to the challenge of online social aggression, threats, and distress. Research Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Yang, X., Wang, Z., Chen, H., & Liu, D. (2018). Cyberbullying perpetration among Chinese adolescents: The role of interparental conflict, moral disengagement, and moral identity. Children and Youth Services Review, 86, 256–263

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zych, I., Baldry, A. C., Farrington, D. P., & Llorent, V. J. (2019). Are children involved in cyberbullying low on empathy? A systematic review and meta-analysis of research on empathy versus different cyberbullying roles. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 45, 83–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2018.03.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Psychology, University of Buckingham, Hunter Street, Buckingham, MK18 1EG, UK

    Maša Popovac, Aneel Singh Gill & Rufaro Maposa

  2. School of Applied Social Science, University of Brighton, Falmer, Brighton, BN1 9PH, UK

    Layla H. Austin

Authors
  1. Maša Popovac
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Aneel Singh Gill
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Layla H. Austin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Rufaro Maposa
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Popovac, M., Gill, A.S., Austin, L.H. et al. Adults’ Perceived Severity and Likelihood of Intervening in Cyberbullying. Int Journal of Bullying Prevention 5, 52–67 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42380-021-00112-8

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42380-021-00112-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation