1 Introduction

Due to its heavy reliance on fossil fuels, which have limited supply, modern society is seriously harming the environment (Heidari et al. 2019; Habibullah et al. 2023). Concerns about environmental sustainability are driving the search for sustainable alternative energy sources as the world’s energy consumption keeps rising (Xu and Wang 2023; Heidari et al. 2024). About 23% of all carbon emissions worldwide are attributed to the transportation industry, which also accounts for a sizeable amount of the world’s energy consumption (Mohsin et al. 2019). It is imperative to switch to sustainable modes of transportation. As a potential replacement for fossil fuels, hydrogen fuel can cut greenhouse gas emissions. Steam reforming of natural gas or electrolysis using sustainable energy sources are two methods for producing hydrogen fuel. Fuel cell vehicles, which are quieter, more efficient, and release no pollutants when compared to conventional gasoline-powered vehicles, are the main application for hydrogen. The widespread use of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles is restricted by the expensive cost of hydrogen fuel cell technology and the absence of infrastructure. However, advancements are being made in their creation and application, which can lessen dependency on fossil fuels and lessen the damaging effects of energy use on the environment (Genovese et al. 2023). To fulfill its potential as a clean and sustainable energy source, hydrogen fuel cell technology and infrastructure must be invested in research and development. Fuel cell vehicles have the potential to increase fuel efficiency and may even be more powerful than conventional internal combustion engines (Alaswad et al. 2016). The intermittent and unstable nature of renewable energy sources presents significant obstacles to the stability of the power system. Effective methods for generating and storing energy are needed because the mismatch between the supply and demand of energy fluctuates over time and space. Technologies for electrochemical energy production and energy storage, such as PEMFCs and secondary batteries, can aid in the steady and effective use of renewable energy sources. Incorporating district heating and waste heat recovery into the hydrogen production system can also increase its efficiency by utilizing the leftover heat from the electrolyzers.

A state-of-the-art technology with great promise for producing ecologically friendly electricity is fuel cells. These cells use the concepts of electrochemistry to catalyze reactions between fuels and oxidants. They start the reactions that produce electricity and water by reacting with a fuel source, usually hydrogen, with an oxidant, usually oxygen from the air. Fuel cells have great potential for use in hydrogen-powered automobiles. FCVs provide several advantages, such as quick refueling times, longer driving ranges, and no emissions. These automobiles have the potential to dramatically lower greenhouse gas emissions and the transportation sector’s dependency on fossil fuels (Luo et al. 2021). PEMFCs are the fuel cell of choice for FCVs because of their high efficiency and suitability for automotive applications. PEMFCs function at a lower temperature than other kinds of fuel cells, enabling quicker vehicle startup times and improved responsiveness. In addition to PEMFCs, fuel cells of different kinds are also utilized in fuel-cell automobiles (Wang et al. 2023). Higher temperatures are required for SOFCs, which are capable of producing electricity directly from a variety of fuels, including carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and methane. Early fuel cell car prototypes employed AFCs, which offer great efficiency. DMFCs and DEFCs dispense with the necessity for hydrogen storage by using methanol and ethanol as fuels, respectively (Abdelkareem et al. 2021). The range of fuel cell types available in the automotive industry adds to the overall diversity of fuel cell technology. There are various benefits that hydrogen fuel cells provide for automotive applications. Compared to batteries, they have a higher energy density, which allows for longer driving ranges (Hacking et al. 2019). Furthermore, a cleaner and more sustainable energy cycle is made possible by the production of hydrogen fuel from renewable resources.

Hydrogen plays a crucial role in the pursuit of decarbonization due to its immense potential as a clean energy carrier. Its utilization holds the key to significantly reducing carbon emissions across various sectors, including transportation and industry. The adoption of hydrogen vehicles, especially green hydrogen derived from renewable energy sources, aligns with global strategies aimed at achieving net-zero emissions (Ga Bui et al. 2021). In the context of decarbonization efforts, integrating hydrogen as a fuel source holds tremendous promise for the transport industry, which is a significant contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions. Technological solutions are crucial for boosting the role of hydrogen in decarbonization strategies and achieving net-zero goals. Advancements in hydrogen production, storage, and distribution technologies are essential for scaling up its usage across various sectors. The development of efficient electrolysis processes, which utilize renewable energy sources to produce green hydrogen, is of paramount importance. Additionally, innovations in hydrogen storage and transportation infrastructure will be necessary to ensure its widespread adoption. Furthermore, collaboration between governments, industry stakeholders, and research institutions is vital for promoting the development and deployment of hydrogen technologies. Policy frameworks that provide incentives and support for hydrogen infrastructure development, research and development initiatives, and public-private partnerships can accelerate the transition toward a hydrogen-based economy (Nguyen et al. 2020). There are various obstacles such as cost, policy-making, and infrastructure that exist for fuel cell vehicles.

Although hydrogen fuel cell vehicles have great promise, several obstacles need to be addressed before they can be widely used. The creation of an extensive infrastructure for hydrogen refueling that ensures the availability and presence of hydrogen fueling stations is a significant obstacle. There are continuous efforts to expand this infrastructure and increase the accessibility of hydrogen refueling. Cost cutting is another important component in the affordability of fuel cell vehicles. It is imperative to reduce the expenses associated with fuel cell components, including membranes, platinum catalysts, and balance-of-plant systems (Zhao and Liu 2023). Technological developments and economies of scale can help achieve this. The goal of research and development is to increase fuel cell systems’ longevity and durability, which is essential to their long-term dependability and economic viability. Problems with PEMFC durability have a significant effect on how long the cells live and perform normally. Several approaches, such as the application of cutting-edge catalyst materials, enhanced membrane durability, and effective water management systems, are being investigated to address these issues (Yan et al. 2023). The significance of these challenges can be understood through their potential consequences, such as:

  1. 1.

    Catalyst Degradation: During operation, the catalyst in PEMFCs may experience peeling or detachment, leading to a decrease in the active surface area and an increase in resistance.

  2. 2.

    Membrane Degradation: Repetitive cycles of wetting and drying can result in the formation of pinholes or cracks in the membrane. This can lead to issues such as gas crossover, water leakage, and reduced conductivity.

  3. 3.

    Water Management: Proper water management is crucial for maintaining the optimal hydration level of the membrane and catalyst layer. However, at high operating current densities, excessive accumulation of liquid water can cause flooding, hindering gas diffusion and resulting in rapid degradation of cell performance (Mohideen et al. 2023). Figure 1 shows various types of fuel cells.

Fig. 1
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Redefining fuel cells: exploring the range of technologies advancing clean energy

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The countries with the greatest percentage of FCVs on national roads are South Korea, the US, China, and Japan. Over 80% of all FCVs are passenger cars (Xian et al. 2022). Hyundai and Toyota were the top FCV producers in 2020–2021 (Aminudin et al. 2023). Asia is the region with the greatest concentration of HRSs, with equal amounts being found in China, South Korea, and Japan (Caponi et al. 2023). The majority of HRSs in Europe are found in France and Germany, while several other European nations also make significant contributions. The bulk of HRSs in North America are located in the US, with California having the highest concentration. In this region, Canada has the second-highest concentration of HRSs. In 2021, the number of HRSs and FCVs grew dramatically. Different nations provide different incentives for buying FCVs, but South Korea offers the most alluring package. The majority of nations offer similar incentives for FEVs and BEVs, which only slightly lower the cost of vehicles (Mohideen et al. 2023). China is the leader in fuel cell buses and trucks, while Europe has only recently started to see a small number of FCVs on the road. The growing interest in hydrogen-based transportation across the globe indicates a shift towards ecologically benign and sustainable modes of transportation, despite obstacles including high production costs and inadequate infrastructure. Expanding hydrogen refueling networks and widely adopting FCVs are possible as technology develops and costs come down. Although there is an increasing amount of research on hydrogen as a sustainable energy source and its use in FCVs, a thorough analysis that clarifies the adoption of FCVs as it stands today, as well as related technologies, infrastructure, and prospects, is still lacking. Furthermore, the research currently has not sufficiently examined the role that cutting-edge technologies like artificial intelligence and quantum computing will play in the field of FCVs.

This paper is a comprehensive exploration that bridges the knowledge gaps in the field of Fuel Cell Vehicles. It provides an exhaustive overview by conducting an in-depth evaluation of both current and future technologies associated with FCVs, and by examining their global diffusion patterns. The paper’s scope is broad, encompassing assessments of various types of fuel cells, hydrogen storage methods, and refueling infrastructure. It also highlights the potential influence of cutting-edge fields such as Artificial Intelligence and Quantum Computing on the industry, marking its unique contribution to the field. Moreover, this paper goes beyond merely presenting technological aspects. It also delves into statistical figures, providing a data-driven perspective that is crucial for policy-making. It identifies the challenges that hinder the mass adoption of FCVs and emphasizes the roles of different stakeholders, including corporations and governmental bodies, in shaping the FCV landscape. In essence, this paper serves as a beacon, guiding the path towards a more sustainable future in transportation. It stands as a testament to the power of innovation and research in driving progress, and it underscores the importance of integrating both technological discussions and statistical data in the pursuit of cleaner and more sustainable solutions. This dual focus on technology and data makes this work a valuable resource for researchers, policymakers, and stakeholders in the renewable energy and transportation sectors.

The study is organized logically, with Sect. 2 concentrating on important topics like hydrogen storage and hydrogen-powered hybrid cars. It looks more closely at the complex technology used in hydrogen filling stations. The topic of several battery types that are suitable for fuel cell vehicles is also covered. Now let’s move on to Sect. 3, which highlights the major contributions made by AI and quantum computing in fuel cell vehicles. The fuel cell vehicle landscape is then discussed in Sect. 4, which also includes an overview of particular firms that have integrated fuel cells into their automobiles. It provides a thorough examination and also explores the prospects and problems related to these vehicles. Section 5 provides a summary of the main conclusions and closing thoughts for the work.

2 Advanced hydrogen storage, hybrid vehicles, refueling stations, and battery landscapes: transforming transportation

Although hydrogen is an environmentally benign and sustainable fuel, its gaseous state makes storage difficult. A physical technique called pressurized tank storage makes it possible to store more fuel in a smaller amount of area, but it is costly and can be dangerous if not used correctly. Although lithium nitride is a promising material that can absorb and release hydrogen rapidly, further research is needed to optimize its performance for fuel cells and other applications (Ouyang et al. 2020). Although they are expensive and hefty, metal hydrides can hold hydrogen under mild conditions. Metal hydrides generate metal-hydrogen bonds by absorbing hydrogen and storing it in interstitial locations within their crystalline structure. The metal and the hydride molecule determine how strong these bonds are. The metal or hydride composition can be changed, a catalyst can be added to improve reaction kinetics, and nanoscale particles can be used to increase surface area to increase the hydrogen storage capacity. The substance is heated, or it is exposed to a catalyst, to release the stored hydrogen. A storage of metal hydrides is shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2
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(a) Device diagram and (b) Reversible storage of hydrogen by metal hydride materials (Desai et al. 2023)

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Some researchers are developing this technique to utilize it in fuel cell vehicles, cryogenic liquid hydrogen storage is not a popular method of storing hydrogen for fuel cell vehicles. It turns hydrogen gas into a liquid by cooling it to extremely low temperatures, which increases its storage capacity. Although liquid hydrogen has a high energy density, cooling it requires a lot of energy, and maintaining tanks can be costly. Handling and storing cryogenic liquid can also be hazardous. However, for a variety of applications, cryogenic liquid hydrogen storage is a crucial choice (Sun et al. 2023). Figure 3 represents a cryogenic liquid hydrogen storage.

Fig. 3
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Exploring the potential of cryogenic liquid storage (Rao et al. 2020)

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Liquid hydrogen storage tank evaporation loss is a significant problem, particularly for small tanks with high surface-to-volume ratios. When heat seeps into the tank, some of the liquid hydrogen vaporizes, resulting in evaporation loss (Zhang et al. 2023a). This increases the pressure inside the tank and requires venting of the boil-off gas to prevent over-pressurization. Venting results in the loss of valuable hydrogen and reduces storage efficiency. To reduce evaporation loss of liquid hydrogen storage tanks, some methods include:

  1. 1.

    Improving insulation: Enhancing the insulation of the tank helps minimize heat leaks. For instance, using an evacuated glass bubble insulation system instead of perlite insulation can reduce the boil-off rate by 46%.

  2. 2.

    Active refrigeration: Employing active refrigeration systems can remove heat from the tank and control the state of the propellant. Integrated refrigeration and storage systems, equipped with internal heat exchangers, enable zero boil-off, zero-loss transfer, and densification of liquid hydrogen.

  3. 3.

    Passive cooling techniques: Utilizing passive cooling techniques can lower the temperature of the tank and its surroundings. Cryogenic fluid management technologies, such as sunshades, multilayer insulation, and thermal control coatings, can be employed for this purpose.

These measures aim to minimize heat transfer into the tank, maintain the hydrogen in its liquid state, and reduce the venting of boil-off gas, thereby enhancing storage efficiency and reducing hydrogen loss.

The field of mobility applications has seen a great deal of research and development efforts devoted to the advancement of hydrogen storage technologies in recent years. Diverse efforts have been made by researchers worldwide to minimize obstacles and optimize the potential of hydrogen storage. This ongoing effort has prompted the investigation of numerous storage techniques, each with distinct advantages and disadvantages. In one publication, the economic and technological implications of storing hydrogen underground in different reservoirs and cavities are examined, along with the difficulties and prospects for further research. It also examined hydrogen storage methods for use in mobility and contrasted compressed hydrogen with alternative technologies (Zivar et al. 2021). Another study examined different hydrogen storage systems for use in mobility applications and found that, despite certain disadvantages, compressed hydrogen is the most feasible choice (Rivard et al. 2019). In the meantime, a paper looked at nanostructured materials for storing hydrogen and suggests ways to use metals, nanoporous materials, lightweight components, and functions to improve storage performance (Yu et al. 2017). Certain technologies and storage methods have been the subject of other investigations. One paper, for example, discussed fast refueling technology and hydrogen storage systems for fuel cell vehicles. It also details a metal hydride tank with fins for heat exchange that was tested using fuel cells and hydrogen (Davids et al. 2019). Lastly, a study looked into how hydrogen flow and consumption in a metal hydride storage system for a fuel cell car are impacted by tank temperature. Findings indicated that while a faster flow rate decreased the hydrogen supply and swiftly altered the tank’s temperature, a higher heat exchanger temperature enhanced the tank’s discharge (Özdoğan et al. 2023). It should be mentioned that the compressed H2 gas method is the most widely used method of storing hydrogen in fuel cell vehicles. In summary, these investigations demonstrate the current state of research and development concerning hydrogen storage, together with the obstacles and prospects that still need to be addressed.

The extensive use of hydrogen in mobility applications will be made possible by advancements in storage technology, as hydrogen continues to play a significant part in the shift to a low-carbon economy. Hydrogen-powered hybrid autos use a hydrogen fuel cell and a battery to effectively and cleanly power an electric motor. They can use renewable hydrogen from a variety of sources and emit no emissions (Ma et al. 2023). The fuel cell vehicle schematic is shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4
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Fuel cell vehicles schematic (Xu et al. 2022)

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FCHVs move the vehicle with the help of an electric motor, a battery, and a fuel cell. Hydrogen and water are converted into energy by the fuel cell, which drives the engine. The battery saves additional energy and supports the motor. FCHVs provide advantages like great range and minimal emissions, but they also have drawbacks including a dearth of hydrogen filling stations and a high cost of producing hydrogen, however, these issues might eventually be resolved (Lipman et al. 2018). Because a parallel hybrid powertrain depends more on the internal combustion engine than a series hybrid powertrain, it usually has a smaller battery pack. The benefit of using hydrogen as an ICE fuel is that it emits no emissions from the exhaust. This indicates that when it is operating, it solely emits environmentally benign heat and water vapor, not hazardous pollutants or greenhouse gasses. Furthermore, hydrogen is a clean and sustainable energy source since it can be produced using renewable energy sources like sun, wind, or hydropower. Nevertheless, there are drawbacks to using hydrogen as an ICE fuel. These include hydrogen’s lower energy density than that of gasoline or diesel, as well as the high costs associated with producing, storing, and distributing hydrogen. Because hydrogen gas is compressed and combustible, handling and storage must be done carefully, raising safety concerns (Pan et al. 2023). Figure 5 displays a diagram of the parallel hybrid powertrain.

Fig. 5
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Parallel hybrid powertrain (Qiang et al. 2021)

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The ICE is used by the series hybrid to charge the batteries that power the motor. As a result, the car is lighter and more effective. Both the ICE and additional alternative energy devices can function at peak efficiency. It is feasible to use regenerative braking, but a larger motor is required (Eckert et al. 2021). Figure 6 displays a schematic of the series hybrid powertrain.

Fig. 6
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Series hybrid powertrain (Anton and Florescu 2020)

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The motor and ICE can operate independently or in tandem thanks to the hybrid powertrain’s utilization of both series and parallel features. Although this design allows for flexibility in performance for varying driving conditions, it requires a lot of hardware, such as a generator and transmission (Zhuang et al. 2020).

Fuel cell vehicles require hydrogen refueling stations because they compress and hold hydrogen gas before it is added to the vehicle’s tank. Despite their current rarity, the major places to find them are California, Japan, and Europe (Genovese and Fragiacomo 2023). As automakers invest more in hydrogen fuel cell technology, there is a growing need for more hydrogen refueling stations. These stations can range from small ones for fleets to larger ones for the public, and some even produce hydrogen on-site using renewable energy. According to the 14th annual assessment of H2, an information service provided by Ludwig-Bölkow-Systemtechnik (LBST), a total of 142 new hydrogen refueling stations were operational worldwide in 2021. This brings the total number of hydrogen refueling stations to 685. Additionally, there are plans in progress for the establishment of 252 more refueling stations at various locations (https://www.tuvsud.com/).

Even though hydrogen is an efficient and clean fuel for cars, there are still certain obstacles to be solved. These include the need for additional research and development, the expensive cost of stations, and the low range of vehicles. Nonetheless, because hydrogen refueling stations have the power to transform the transportation sector and reduce emissions, they have enormous potential advantages. It is anticipated that more investment and innovation will help technology advance as it grows. Recent studies have revealed several challenges associated with the construction and operation of hydrogen stations, including financial and environmental concerns that are contingent upon the method of producing and delivering hydrogen to stations. There has been some progress in problem-solving and station planning; nevertheless, more study is needed to balance station availability with vehicle demand (Greene et al. 2020). A model for the optimal hydrogen network for Ontario’s HWY 401 and a study on the infrastructure for hydrogen fueling to decarbonize road transport in Scotland are just two examples of studies that have examined the advantages of hydrogen fueling infrastructure. These studies highlight how critical it is to quickly implement hydrogen infrastructure in place of diesel and how crucial it is to take into account how investments in transportation infrastructure affect the adoption of sustainable investments (Shamsi et al. 2021). Due to the unique characteristics of hydrogen and the need for cautious solutions, designing safe infrastructure for hydrogen fueling is especially essential. In one piece, a two-level approach is suggested to assess and maximize the safety of persons on board, bunkering, and land design (Hansen 2020). In conclusion, even with the difficulties, hydrogen refueling stations for cars have a lot of potential advantages, and if the technology advances, it may completely change the transportation sector and reduce emissions. The hydrogen refueling chain is shown in Fig. 7.

Fig. 7
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Hydrogen refueling chain

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In hydrogen vehicles, batteries serve a variety of purposes, including starting the car and providing power to auxiliary equipment. Additionally, they control the flow of energy by storing extra fuel from the fuel cell system and using it when demand is high. Moreover, batteries use regenerative braking to store and reuse energy. Different kinds of batteries are used in hydrogen cars for different purposes. Like regular car batteries, the auxiliary battery starts the car and supplies power to the auxiliary systems. The traction battery stores and distributes energy from the fuel cell system, serving as a buffer during periods of high-power demand. It frequently makes use of cutting-edge lithium-ion technology. Supercapacitors can also be implemented for improved performance because of their quick energy storage and release capabilities (Khalid et al. 2022). Solid-state batteries provide advantages over liquid electrolytes, including faster charging, greater safety, longer lifespans, and higher energy densities. Some businesses, such as Toyota, intend to transition to these batteries and release them on the market in the first half of 2027 (https://www.reuters.com/). A new solid-state battery with an all-silicon anode was presented in a recent study; this battery could lower the cost and enhance the capacity of lithium-ion batteries (Moradi et al. 2023). Ultra-fast charging batteries can charge in minutes, enhancing the convenience of electric vehicles. They rely on novel materials and designs that can withstand high currents and temperatures without degradation (Leone et al. 2022).

The efficiency and longevity of different battery energy storage technologies are compared in Fig. 8. Out of all the energy storage technologies, supercapacitors have the longest lifespan and maximum efficiency of up to 100,000 cycles. NiCd batteries, on the other hand, have the lowest lifespan and efficiency ratings. In terms of efficiency, Li-ion batteries are ranked second, followed by Flywheel and SEMES batteries. Conversely, among these technologies, flow batteries have the shortest lifespan.

Fig. 8
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Comparing various battery types (Kashani et al. 2022)

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3 AI and quantum computing: revolutionizing sustainable transportation with advanced fuel cell vehicles

Technological developments in artificial intelligence have created new avenues for enhancing FCV EMSs, resulting in increased effectiveness, dependability, and customization. Several AI-based energy management systems for FCVs have been investigated recently. These include deep reinforcement learning for rail transportation, machine learning to forecast fuel cell degradation, and reinforcement learning-based energy management strategies for fuel cell hybrid energy vehicles FCHEVs and hybrid fuel cell/battery propulsion systems in vehicles and coastal ships. These studies show how AI can greatly improve FCV performance and encourage the use of hydrogen energy devices in the transportation industry and other fields. The application of machine learning techniques to improve fuel cell system performance and stop degradation has been the subject of several studies.

For instance, one study created an energy management system for rail transportation that lowers fuel cell aging costs and hydrogen use through the application of deep reinforcement learning. The system adjusted to various conditions and balanced the charging and discharging of batteries (Deng et al. 2022). Machine learning was employed in another study to forecast fuel cell stack degradation, which has an impact on hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. The study emphasized how crucial it is to stop fuel cell degradation because it can lead to higher fuel usage and greenhouse gas emissions (Raeesi et al. 2021). The development of reinforcement learning-based fuel-cell hybrid vehicle energy management systems has been the subject of other investigations. These approaches optimize the RL algorithms and produce near-optimal outcomes, increasing the fuel cell system’s lifetime. They do this by using pre-initialization frameworks, power distribution rules, and other measures (Li et al. 2022). Furthermore, machine learning techniques have been applied to electric car fuel cell voltage decay prediction, hydrogen leak localization, and oxygen supply regulation. These techniques have demonstrated encouraging outcomes in terms of enhancing system performance overall, decreasing deterioration, and increasing fuel economy. All things considered, this research shows how machine learning may be used to optimize fuel cell systems and advance environmentally friendly transportation. We anticipate seeing even more cutting-edge machine-learning applications in sustainability and energy management as the area develops.

The rapidly developing field of quantum computing holds great promise for completely changing the automotive sector in many ways. Quantum computing can greatly advance research and development in the field of fuel cells by simulating complex chemical reactions, creating new materials for fuel cell components and hydrogen storage, and enhancing fuel cell performance and efficiency. The potential of quantum computing to enhance hydrogen delivery and refueling infrastructure, resulting in more accessible and efficient fueling networks, is one of the major advantages for the automotive sector. Even though it’s still in its infancy, quantum computing has the power to revolutionize hydrogen fuel cell cars, establishing an effective and sustainable transportation system that lessens dependency on fossil fuels and contributes to the slowing of global warming (Gupta et al. 2023). Numerous investigations have examined the possibility of utilizing quantum computing to enhance various facets of the automotive sector. One study, for instance, suggested a methodology for evaluating quantum computing’s potential in the transportation industry and provided evidence of its viability using an optimization problem involving vehicle routing. Quantum computing has been investigated in studies for inventory routing and task offloading in-vehicle networks. This research has demonstrated the potential of quantum computing for decision-making in vehicle routing problems by putting out mathematical formulations and assessing their applicability to quantum algorithms (Shu and Li 2023). Furthermore, research on automotive applications, specifically liquid hydrogen storage, has demonstrated the considerable potential of quantum computing in forecasting the behavior of molecular composite materials. The study has brought to light the enhanced predictive capabilities of molecular dynamics modeling (Yin and Liu 2023).

To sum up, this research shows how quantum computing can revolutionize the auto industry and develop more sustainable and effective transportation networks. We expect to see even more cutting-edge uses of quantum computing in this discipline as the field develops, which will result in important breakthroughs in fuel cell technology and other fields. By taking advantage of the special characteristics of quantum mechanics, quantum computing has the potential to completely transform the manufacturing and application of FCVs. When compared to traditional computers, this method is far faster. By simulating intricate quantum events with quantum algorithms, it can optimize the performance and design of catalysts, fuel cells, and materials for storing hydrogen. Through the analysis of massive volumes of data, quantum machine learning can improve the efficiency and dependability of hydrogen production, distribution, and refueling. Quantum cryptography can also increase the safety and security of FCVs by defending control and communication systems against online attacks. However, there are drawbacks to quantum computing as well, such as the high cost and complexity of creating and maintaining quantum hardware, the issues associated with scaling up and error correction, and the lack of global standards and laws. To reap the complete benefits of quantum computing for FCVs, researchers, industry stakeholders, and policymakers must work together and maintain a balanced point of view.

4 Fuel cell vehicles: global adoption, vehicle types, and future perspectives in the sustainable transportation landscape

The Toyota Mirai and Hyundai Nexo stand out as notable fuel-cell vehicle models that have embraced fuel-cell technology. The BMW iX5 is a hydrogen fuel cell electric SUV with a power output of up to 395 hp and the ability to accelerate from 0 to 62 mph in under six seconds (Eisner et al. 2023). The Honda CR-V FCEV is a hydrogen fuel cell electric crossover based on the new Honda CR-V model (Das et al. 2023). The Hyperion XP-1 is a hydrogen fuel cell electric supercar that boasts a top speed of over 220 mph and a range exceeding 1000 miles (https://carbuzz.com). They both utilize Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells, renowned for their high-power density and rapid startup times. The Toyota Mirai achieves a range of over 300 miles on a single tank of hydrogen, while the Hyundai Nexo offers an impressive range of approximately 380 miles. These vehicles provide compelling evidence of fuel-cell vehicles’ practicality as alternatives to conventional vehicles, effectively addressing concerns related to range anxiety (Wang et al. 2021b).

Fuel-cell vehicles can combine with renewable energy sources and produce zero emissions, which makes them extremely beneficial for the environment. Nonetheless, there are still obstacles to overcome to increase hydrogen production and create a thorough infrastructure for refueling. Economically speaking, fuel-cell car costs are falling as a result of policy incentives and technological breakthroughs (Ajanovic et al. 2021). The Hyundai Nexo and Toyota Mirai are two outstanding instances of how fuel-cell technology has been successfully incorporated into automobiles, demonstrating advances in performance, sustainability, and technology (Álvarez Fernández et al. 2018). Fuel-cell automobiles have the power to transform the automotive sector and advance environmentally friendly and sustainable mobility in the future.

Lessons from case studies of fuel-cell vehicles highlight the significance of market preparation, cooperation, ongoing innovation, and sustainability. Policy support, technology improvements, and infrastructure development all depend on cooperative efforts. Sustained innovation is necessary to increase effectiveness, longevity, and affordability. Meeting customer needs and guaranteeing a flawless user experience are essential to becoming market-ready. Fuel-cell vehicles’ zero emissions and use of renewable hydrogen can make a substantial contribution to sustainability goals. These lessons are what will propel fuel-cell car adoption and advancement in the direction of a more environmentally friendly and sustainable transportation future.

The global fuel cell car distribution map shows that different countries have different rates of adoption. Every piece of info relates to 2022–2021. With 12,358 and 19,404 automobiles, respectively, the United States and the Republic of Korea led, followed by China and Japan with 6,741 and 8,474. Germany leads Europe with 1,549 fuel cell cars, followed by the Netherlands, the UK, and France. The proportion of fuel cell vehicles per person is higher in smaller countries like Denmark and Norway, suggesting that these countries place a high priority on environmentally friendly transportation. The map highlights the necessity for ongoing investment to support a sustainable future as well as the global trend toward the use of fuel-cell vehicles. Figure 9 displays the spread of fuel cells globally.

Fig. 9
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Fuel cell cars worldwide: an exploration of geographic variability (Samsun et al. 2022)

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The dispersion of fuel-cell passenger automobiles among nations demonstrates how widely this technology is being used. Korea has the most cars (19,270), followed by the US (12,283) and Japan (6,631). With 1,452 automobiles, Germany is also demonstrating its commitment. Emerging markets in European countries range in number from 1 to 180. While some countries are just beginning to adopt, others have counts ranging from 231 to 488, indicating growing interest. Sustained endeavors and allocation of resources towards infrastructure and incentives are important to expedite global implementation and foster sustainable transportation alternatives. The regional diversity of passenger fuel cell vehicles is depicted in Fig. 10 (Samsun et al. 2022).

Fig. 10
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Charting the spatial distribution of fuel cell-powered passenger cars (Samsun et al. 2022)

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The distribution of fuel cell vehicle types is displayed in Chart 11, with passenger cars accounting for the biggest share at 82.0%. At 9.2%, buses make up a significant portion compared to light, medium, and heavy-duty trucks, which have smaller shares. The graph emphasizes how common passenger vehicles are for short-distance travel as well as the importance of other vehicle types in various transportation industries (Teng et al. 2020).

Fig. 11
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Fuel cell vehicle diversity: examining where various types are distributed worldwide (Samsun et al. 2022)

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Asia has the largest percentage of fuel cell vehicles globally, accounting for 67.4%, followed by North America at 24.5%, Europe at 7.7%, and Australia at 0.4%. Figure 12 illustrates this distribution of fuel cell car shares by continent. The report emphasizes how Asia dominates the car allocation market, with considerable shares also held by North America and Europe (Ko and Shin 2023).

Fig. 12
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Investigating the continent-by-continent global fuel cell vehicle distribution

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Although fuel cell vehicles have several benefits over conventional engines, several obstacles need to be overcome in the areas of infrastructure, pricing, technology, and market expansion. To lower the price of producing hydrogen and enhance the efficiency of fuel cells, a great deal of research is required. Infrastructure spending is also essential to facilitating the broad use of FCEVs. Education campaigns should be used to increase public acceptability and awareness as well (Aminudin et al. 2023).

Researchers are working hard to create new materials and designs that will increase the fuel cell vehicles’ dependability and efficiency. The scarcity of hydrogen filling stations, however, continues to be a problem. Governments and the business sector are funding the creation of an extensive network of refueling stations to alleviate this problem. To guarantee that FCEVs are a safe and secure alternative for customers, researchers are working on creating new safety features and protocols for handling and storing hydrogen. Safety is of the utmost importance. Significant obstacles for FCEVs include high production and maintenance costs, unstable hydrogen prices, and a lack of infrastructure. Furthermore, battery electric vehicles are a rival to them. However, the market for FCEVs is expected to develop because of the increasing demand for clean vehicles around the world, as well as technological breakthroughs, renewable hydrogen generation methods, vehicle-to-grid capacity, and international cooperation. To fully reap the benefits of FCEVs for the future of transportation, more research and funding will be needed (Rasul et al. 2022). Governments have a lot of power to encourage the use of FCEVs in a variety of ways. These include offering financial rewards, setting pollution guidelines, making infrastructure investments, putting money toward R&D, encouraging global collaboration, and putting safety rules for handling hydrogen into place.

The topic of fuel cell cars presents numerous prospects for study and development. These include creating novel fuel cell materials and manufacturing techniques, enhancing infrastructure for producing hydrogen and refueling it, integrating FCEVs into current systems, and resolving legislative and regulatory frameworks. Furthermore, initiatives for the wider adoption of FCEVs can be informed by an awareness of consumer sentiments toward them. Some studies on fuel-cell cars are reviewed in Table 1.

Table 1 Review of fuel cell-powered vehicle literature
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5 Conclusion

Hydrogen is increasingly being recognized as a viable renewable energy source, garnering interest due to rising energy demands and environmental concerns. This article explores the intricacies of fuel cell vehicle technology, encompassing various types of fuel cells, hydrogen storage, refueling stations, and the integration of cutting-edge quantum computing and artificial intelligence. It highlights the leadership of the United States and South Korea in fuel cell vehicle adoption, with passenger cars being the dominant type in Asia, followed by buses and trucks. The report emphasizes the importance of ongoing investment to sustain momentum in transportation solutions, highlighting the challenges and contributions of various enterprises in this sector. Hydrogen possesses the potential to replace fossil fuels in transportation due to its clean energy properties, but widespread adoption is currently hindered by cost and infrastructure constraints. Fuel cells generate clean hydrogen energy, but their high costs and the scarcity of refueling infrastructure impede mass commercialization. However, it is anticipated that continued technological progress and cost reductions will make hydrogen an increasingly viable option for sustainable transportation. The proliferation of fuel cell vehicles depends on the availability of hydrogen refueling stations, which are limited and costly due to technological complexities. Advancements and innovations in hydrogen infrastructure are crucial for the adoption of fuel cell technology and the transition towards sustainable transportation. Strategic planning is imperative for the successful deployment of hydrogen-based mobility, considering factors such as production methods, demand patterns, and the impact on the transportation network. High-performance fuel cell vehicles like the Hyundai Nexo and Toyota Mirai demonstrate the potential of hydrogen for zero-emission transportation. These models, with their proton exchange membrane fuel cells and optimized fuel cell stacks and components, achieve high efficiency and seamless integration into vehicles. The overarching message is that the widespread adoption of fuel-cell vehicles and the transformation of transportation systems require collective action, ongoing innovation, market readiness, and a steadfast commitment to sustainability. Market readiness and adoption strategies: The study underscores the importance of joint efforts and continuous innovation in promoting the widespread use of fuel cell vehicles. Formulating market readiness strategies, including incentives and supportive policies, is vital for the effective implementation of hydrogen-based mobility and for motivating consumers and businesses to switch to fuel-cell vehicles. Governments and industry stakeholders need to collaborate in creating an environment conducive to the establishment of hydrogen infrastructure and fueling stations. Fuel cell technology has versatile applications beyond passenger vehicles.

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    Public Transportation: Fuel cell-powered buses are already operating in several cities worldwide, offering a cleaner and quieter alternative to diesel buses.

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    Heavy-Duty Trucking: Fuel cells are suitable for long-haul trucking, providing longer range and faster refueling compared to battery electric vehicles.

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    Speciality Vehicles: Fuel cells are used in various speciality vehicles, including airport movers, wheelchairs, unmanned vehicles, boats, small planes, submarines, and small military vehicles.

While fuel cell vehicles offer clear benefits, there are challenges to address for broader adoption.

  1. 1.

    Infrastructure: Developing hydrogen refueling infrastructure is crucial, including sustainable hydrogen production and distribution networks.

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    Cost: The initial cost of fuel cell technology is high, but economies of scale and technological advancements are expected to reduce costs and increase competitiveness.

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    Public Perception: Educating the public about the benefits and safety of hydrogen as a fuel is necessary to increase acceptance and adoption.

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    Policy Support: Government incentives and supportive policies can accelerate the deployment of fuel cell vehicles and fund infrastructure development.

In conclusion, fuel cell vehicles can play a significant role in transitioning to a sustainable transportation system. Continued innovation, investment, and collaboration between governments and industry can make fuel cell vehicles a viable and widespread option for clean mobility. Advanced technologies like quantum computing and artificial intelligence can further enhance fuel cell systems’ efficiency and capabilities, paving the way for a greener future.