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"Whole-Process People’s Democracy" in China: Evidence from Shanghai

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Abstract

This study provides an in-depth analysis of the grassroots practice of the “whole-process people’s democracy” (WPD) raised by the Chinese Communist Party under Xi Jinping. Through extensive fieldwork in Shanghai and based on a participation-response analytical framework, four typical types of WPD are explored, i.e., participation for policy suggestion, participation for mobilization, participation for complaints and supervision, and participation for self-governance. It suggests that, unlike Western democracy, which is based on public scrutiny of the government and competitive elections, the responses of local officials to the demands of the people under WPD are more dependent on the assessment of higher authorities and their expectations for promotion. At the same time, public participation is state-mobilized and people express their voices, exercise their powers, and supervise the government in a conditional manner. Despite limitations, WPD has helped to facilitate local officials’ response to people’s demands and engaged more public opinion in the policymaking process. The findings of this study provide valuable insights into the democratic governance in communist regimes and the theoretical development of socialist democracy with Chinese characteristics.

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Notes

  1. “Xi stresses enhancing whole-process people’s democracy,” Xinhua Net, October 14, 2021, http://english.www.gov.cn/news/topnews/202110/14/content_WS61682fa5c6d0df57f98e1aab.html, accessed March 2, 2023.

  2. “以人民为中心推进城市建设” (Putting the people at the center to promote urban construction), June 16, 2020, http://theory.people.com.cn/n1/2020/0616/c40531-31747831.html, accessed April 20, 2023.

  3. “人民城市人民建, 人民城市为人民! 上海市委全会通过重磅意见” (The people’s city is built by the people, and the people’s city is for the people! The plenary session of the Shanghai Municipal Party Committee adopted heavy opinions), June 23, 2020, https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1670292935358651882&wfr=spider&for=pc, accessed March 18, 2023.

  4. For example, Beijing and Hangzhou of Zhejiang Province also established the grassroots legislative units, see “’原汁原味’反映群众立法建议, 6个街道司法所成首批立法联系点” (Fully reflects the masses’ legislative suggestions, and six Street Judicial Offices have become the first batch of legislative units), October 30, 2021, https://ie.bjd.com.cn/5b165687a010550e5ddc0e6a/contentApp/5b1a1310e4b03aa54d764015/AP617d1f18e4b023337ef72054?isshare=1 and “基层立法联系点畅通民意征集’最后一公里’” (Grassroot legislative units are unblocked to collect public opinion “the last mile”) November 21, 2021, https://hznews.hangzhou.com.cn/chengshi/content/2021-11/21/content_8100492.htm, accessed March 4, 2023; Chengdu of Sichuan Province and Guangzhou of Guangdong Province also launched the projects of elevator installation in old public housing areas, see “民主协商现代治理体系 ‘帮’老旧小区顺利加装电梯” (The democratic consultation and modern governance system “helped” the old community to install elevators smoothly) July 22, 2021, https://www.sohu.com/a/478863267_116237 and “广州: 法治保障破解旧楼加装电梯难题” (Guangzhou: Legal guarantee to solve the problem of installing elevators in old buildings), August 3, 2022, https://gz.gov.cn/xw/zwlb/bmdt/ssfj/content/post_8469099.html, accessed March 5, 2023; Tianjin and Suzhou of Jiangsu Province also opened 12,345 service hotline for local citizens, see “扩散 ‘12,345,’ 天津统一政务服务便民热线!” (Spread “12,345,” Tianjin Unified Government Service Convenience Hotline!) August 5, 2021, https://www.thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forward_13943340 and “持续做优’12,345’平台苏州模式” (Continue to improve the “12,345” platform Suzhou model), January 21, 2021, https://www.suzhou.gov.cn/szsrmzf/szyw/202201/fbc200dcac8948f9871d118a8c763809.shtml, accessed March 5, 2023; Zhejiang and Guangdong Province have also widely promoted the community consultative conference, see “广东建立城乡社区议事协商示范点超3100个 社区治理与服务交出‘广东方案’” (More than 3100 community governance and service demonstration sites have been established in urban and rural communities in Guangdong), May 6, 2021, https://www.gd.gov.cn/gdywdt/zwzt/yqfk/gdzxd/content/post_3276008.html and “浙江积极推动民生议事堂平台建设, 聚焦群众关切, 破解治理难题, 发展全过程人民民主” (Zhejiang actively promotes the construction of the people’s congress platform, focuses on people’s concerns and solves governance problems, developing WPD throughout the process) February 10, 2023, https://k.sina.com.cn/article_5675440730_152485a5a02001jmcd.html, accessed March 12, 2023.

  5. The CCP stresses the state’s response and mass participation in the development of the WPD by stating that “the state should implement the party’s mass line, maintain close ties with the people, listen to the people’s voices, respond to the people’s expectations, constantly solve the most direct and realistic interests that the people are most concerned about, and gather the wisdom and strength of the majority of the people.” See “不断发展全过程人民民主——论学习贯彻习近平总书记中央人大工作会议重要讲话” (Continuously Develop the Whole-process People’s Democracy: On Studying and Implementing the Important Speech of General Secretary Xi Jinping at the Working Session of the People’s Congress), October 18, 2021, http://dangjian.people.com.cn/BIG5/n1/2021/1018/c117092-32256464.html, accessed April 19, 2023.

  6. “Managed” here means that unlike citizens of democracies, people in China lack strong legal protection of meaningful public participation because the “bird of rule by law” has remained in the “cage of the party-state.”.

  7. “国务院办公厅关于进一步优化地方政务服务便民热线的指导意见” (Guidance of the General Office of the State Council on Further Optimizing the Local Government and Hotline Services), http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2021-01/06/content_5577419.htm, accessed January 7, 2023.

  8. Online data for statistics are open for public, see http://www.sh12345.gov.cn/, accessed May 20, 2023.

  9. Data were collected from the fieldwork in Shanghai, October 20, 2021.

  10. Interview with Mr. Tao through WeChat, June 6, 2021.

  11. Interview with Ms. Wang who lived in X District, Shanghai through WeChat, April 7, 2021.

  12. Interview with Mr. J, May 5, 2021.

  13. Data were collected in the fieldwork in X District, Shanghai, November 2, 2021.

  14. “关于全面推进依法治国若干重大问题的决定,” October 29, 2014, https://www.ccps.gov.cn/xytt/201812/t20181212_123256.shtml, accessed January 2, 2022.

  15. “市人大常委会25家基层立法联系点亮相!”(The Standing Committee of Shanghai Municipal People’s Congress has 25 grassroots legislative units!), April 21, 2020, https://m.thepaper.cn/baijiahao_7070340, accessed January 5, 2022.

  16. As the Regulations on the Work of the Street Working Committee of the Standing Committee of the Shanghai Municipal People’s Congress effective on January 1, 2022 stipulated, the Street working committee shall, in accordance with the guidance of the Standing Committee of the Municipal People’s Congress and the Standing Committee of the District People’s Congress, promote the construction of grassroots legislative units, support and assist the grassroots legislative units located in the Street to collect and reflect people’s opinions and recommendations on legislation and related work, and provide services for them to carry out the work. See “上海市区人民代表大会常务委员会街道工作委员会工作条例,” December 31, 2021, https://m.thepaper.cn/baijiahao_16095854, accessed January 5, 2022.

  17. “这意见只有群众才能提得出”——访上海市政府基层立法联系点” (This Opinion Can Only be Put Forward by the Masses: A Visit to the Grassroots Legislative Point of Shanghai Municipal Government), November 24, 2021, https://m.thepaper.cn/baijiahao_15528400, accessed January 7, 2022.

  18. The first author was invited to attend the meeting to discuss the draft of the Law of the Protection of Women’s Rights and Interests in December 2021, during which she raised several suggestions on the articles of the law and her opinions were marked down directly by the leaders of NPC the through videoconference.

  19. It was told by officials from the C legislative unit that three student representatives and three parents from C District Middle School in Shanghai were invited to the meeting. They put forward proposals on Article 32, “prevention and control of bullying” and Article 43, “management of places unsuitable for the activities of minors,” which later were adopted by the Municipal People’s Congress in Shanghai.

  20. Interview with Mr. Z, C legislative unit in P Street Office, Shanghai, August 30, 2021.

  21. Interview with Mr. P, C legislative unit in P Street Office, Shanghai, June 6, 2021.

  22. Interview information from staff at C legislative point, December 8, 2021. They admitted that the data of the number of public opinions collected and adopted online was incorrect since they were working overtime and too busy to update it on time.

  23. Interview with Ms. Li, Shanghai, August 8, 2021.

  24. “本市既有多层住宅增设电梯的指导意见” (Guidance on Adding Elevators to Existing Multi-storey Houses in the City), https://sh.focus.cn/zixun/f7500e9b43e2e50d.html, accessed January 12, 2022.

  25. “最新数据: 上海加装电梯立项952幢, 投入运行电梯221台” (952 elevators were installed in Shanghai, and 221 elevators were put into operation,” December 20, 2019, https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1653405019333194845&wfr=spider&for=pc, accessed 9 January 2022.

  26. “‘加装电梯’再次写入国务院政府工作报告:支持旧楼加装电梯”(“Installing Elevators” was Written into the Government Work Report of the State Council Again: Supporting the Installation of Elevators in Old Buildings), March 8, 2019, https://www.sohu.com/a/299820399_744299, and “总理报告中的 ‘老小旧远’” (“Old, small, old and far away” in the Premier’s Report), March 7, 2019, https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1627330810537531122&wfr=spider&for=pc, accessed January 10, 2022.

  27. Interview with Ms. Fan in P District, Shanghai, December 20, 2021.

  28. “加装电梯首次被写入住房 ‘十四五’规划, 上海计划今年加装电梯逾千台” (The Installation of Elevators was Written into the “14th five-year plan for housing” for the first time, Shanghai plans to install more than 1,000 elevators this year), August 30, 2021, https://m.sohu.com/a/486515076_121019331, accessed December 22, 2021.

  29. “上海老旧住房加装电梯费用如何分摊” (How to share the cost of installing elevators in old houses in Shanghai), January 19, 2021, https://sghexport.shobserver.com/html/baijiahao/2021/01/19/339928.html, accessed January 9, 2022.

  30. Interview with Ms. Fan in J District Shanghai, September 30, 2021.

  31. “Thought work” is one of the CCP’s strategies of psychological engineering and methods of revolutionary mobilization in post-Mao China, see Perry (2002) and Liu (2010).

  32. “中共中央办公厅、国务院办公厅印发 ‘关于加强城乡社区协商的意见’” (The General Office of the CCP Central Committee and the General Office of the State Council Issued the Opinions on Strengthening Urban and Rural Community Consultation), July 22, 2015, http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/2015-07/22/content_2900883.htm, accessed December 20, 2021.

  33. “解读上海市委一号课题成果: 关于进一步创新社会治理加强基层建设的意见”, (Interpretation of the Results of the No. 1 Project of Shanghai Municipal Party Committee “Opinions on Further Innovating Social Governance and Strengthening Grassroots Construction), January 6, 2015, http://dangjian.people.com.cn/n/2015/0106/c117092-26336495.html, accessed March 7, 2022.

  34. Interview with Zhicong, M District in Shanghai, 13 May 2020.

  35. Interview with Ms. Wang, M District, 14 May 2020.

  36. Interview with Junshan, M District, May 16, 2020.

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Funding

This article is funded by the “Research on the Flexible Governance and Social Work Response in China” (19YJC840043) and Shanghai Social Science Innovation Research Base of “Research on Transitional Sociology with Chinese Characteristics”. The Ministry of Education (CN), 19YJC840043, Tong Wu.

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  1. Law School, No. 1 Bldg. of Humanities and Social Sciences, Hangzhou City University, No. 50, Huzhou Street, Gongshu District, Hangzhou, 310015, Zhejiang, China

    Jieren Hu

  2. East China Normal University, No. 500, Dongchuan Rd., Minhang District, Shanghai, China

    Tong Wu

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  1. Jieren Hu
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Correspondence to Tong Wu.

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The authors declare no interest of conflict. They are grateful for Xiyue Wang, Askan Weidemann, Johannes Rossi, and Gustav Schwenk’s help for publishing this paper.

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Hu, J., Wu, T. "Whole-Process People’s Democracy" in China: Evidence from Shanghai. Chin. Polit. Sci. Rev. (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41111-023-00245-9

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