Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

A new solution for water-tightening of the cemented sand-gravel (CSG) hardfill dams

  • Technical Paper
  • Published:
Innovative Infrastructure Solutions Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The hardfill dams comprised of the cemented sand-gravel (CSG) mixtures and are widely used in worldwide due to many considerable advantages. As the CSG mixtures in the main body of hardfill dam have a higher permeability, the water-tightening of these dams is a main concern. In this paper, a specific type of the CSG mixture with low permeability was achieved to implement in the impervious zone of hardfill dams. To this end, various types of CSG mixtures were prepared by blending two native sand and gravel soils with different amounts of kaolinite or bentonite additives in the presence of various cement contents. The compaction properties, uniaxial compressive strength, permeability, and scanning electron microscope images of the mixtures are measured. According to the results, when the soil fraction in the cemented mixture 10% kaolinite additive, the maximum strength was attained. On the other hand, the bentonite disturbs the cement hydration in the mixture, and the strength of mixtures, especially in the mixtures with high cement content, decreases with increasing the bentonite content. The permeability of mixtures is related to the amount and interaction between cement and fine additive in the mixture. The permeability of both cemented sand and cemented gravel mixtures considerably decreases with increasing the bentonite additive. However, the kaolinite additive has a limited influence on the permeability of cemented gravel mixtures. For attaining a low permeable CSG mixture to implement for water-tightening the hardfill dams, the mixture involving a higher amount of bentonite (with a weight ratio of 30%) in the presence of adequate cement (higher than 10%) is recommended.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12
Fig. 13
Fig. 14

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Yokotsuka T (2000) Application of CSG method to construction of gravity dam. In: ICOLD 2000 at Beijing 4, 14

  2. Londe P, Lino M (1992) The faced symmetrical hardfill dam: a new concept for RCC. Int Water Power Dam Constr 44(2):19–24

    Google Scholar 

  3. Cai X, Wu Y, Guo X, Ming Y (2012) Research review of the cement sand and gravel (CSG) dam. Front Struct Civ Eng 6(1):19–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11709-012-0145-y

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Jia J, Lino M, Jin F, Zheng C (2016) The cemented material dam: a new, environmentally friendly type of dam. Engineering 2(4):490–497. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENG.2016.04.003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Xin C, Yanan Z, Xingwen G, Xiaochuan Z, Fan L, Tianye Z (2022) Review on research progress of cemented sand and gravel dam. Sci Eng Compos Mater 29(1):438–451. https://doi.org/10.1515/secm-2022-0168

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Batmaz S (2003) Cindere dam-107 m high roller compacted hardfill dam (RCHD) in Turkey. In: Roller compacted concrete dams, pp 121–126

  7. Aghajani HF, Soltani-Jigheh H, Salimi M, Karimi S, Estekanchi V, Akbarzadeh Ahari R (2022) Investigating the strength, hydraulic conductivity, and durability of the CSG (cemented sand-gravel) check dams: a case study in Iran. SN Appl Sci 4(6):169. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-022-05062-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Guillemot T, Lino M (2012) Design and construction advantages of hardfill symmetrical dams-case study: Safsaf dam in Eastern Algeria. Zaragoza 23:25

    Google Scholar 

  9. Jia J, Ding L, Wu Y, Li A, Li S (2020) Building cemented material dam with soft rock material. In: The international conference on embankment dams. Springer, pp 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46351-9_3

  10. Gowram I (2022) Experimental and analytical study of high-strength concrete containing natural zeolite and additives. Civ Eng J 8(10):2318–2335

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Mbengue MTM, Gana AL, Messan A, Pantet A (2022) Geotechnical and mechanical characterization of lateritic soil improved with crushed granite. Civ Eng J 8(5):843–862

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Cai X, Jiang M, Guo X, Chen J, Zhao Q (2020) Experimental study on the creep behaviour of cemented sand and gravel (CSG) and temperature stress prediction of CSG dam under seasonal temperature change. Adv Civ Eng 2020:8289520. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/8289520

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Cai X, Zhang Y, Guo X, Liu Q, Zhang X, Xie X (2022) Functional zoning optimization design of cemented sand and gravel dam based on modified Duncan-Chang nonlinear elastic model. Case Stud Constr Mater 17:e01511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2022.e01511

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Chen J, Cai X, Lale E, Yang J, Cusatis G (2019) Centrifuge modeling testing and multiscale analysis of cemented sand and gravel (CSG) dams. Constr Build Mater 223:605–615. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.06.218

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Ding Z, Xue J, Zhu X, Wang J (2022) Optimization of CSG dam profile based on response surface methodology. Case Stud Constr Mater 17:e01430. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2022.e01430

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Guo L, Zhang J, Guo L, Wang J, Shen W (2022) Research on profile design criteria of 100 m CSG dams. Case Stud Constr Mater 16:e01137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2022.e01137

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Hanada H, Tamezawa T, Ooyabu K, Matsueda S (2018) CSG method using muck excavated from the dam foundation. In: Roller compacted concrete dams. Routledge, pp 447–456

  18. Hao N, Li X, Li Y, Jia J, Gao L (2022) A novel reliability-based method of calibrating safety factor: application to the cemented sand and gravel dams. Eng Geol 306:106719. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2022.106719

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Hirose T (2007) Engineering manual for construction and quality control of trapezoidal CSG dam. Japan Dam Engineering Center Report

  20. Hirose T, Fujisawa T, Kawasaki H, Kondo M, Hirayama D, Sasaki T (2018) Design concept of trapezoid-shaped CSG dam. In: Roller compacted concrete dams. Routledge, pp 457–464

  21. Kondo M, Sasaki T, Kawasaki H (2004) Characteristics of stress distribution in trapezoid-shaped CSG dam during earthquake. In: Proceedings of the 13th world conference on earthquake engineering, pp 33–92

  22. Yang J, Cai X, Pang Q, Guo X-w, Wu Y-l, Zhao J-l (2018) Experimental study on the shear strength of cement-sand-gravel material. Adv Mater Sci Eng 2018:2531642. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/2531642

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Yang J, Yang A-y, Shan Y-g, Yang M-m, Zhao J-l, Yu H (2021) Experimental study on mechanical behavior of lean cemented sand and gravel material in unloading and reloading paths. Adv Mater Sci Eng 2021:8893840. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8893840

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Gouvas H, Orfanos C (2014) Determination of factors affecting compressive strength of lean RCC mixtures: the experience of filiatrinos dam. Geotech Geol Eng 32(5):1317–1327. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-014-9807-y

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Yanmaz AM, Sezgin OI (2009) Evaluation study on the instrumentation system of Cindere dam. J Perform Constr Facil 23(6):415–422. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CF.1943-5509.0000051

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Álvarez L (1982) Characteristic of the plastic concrete of the diaphragm wall of Converto Viejo Dam. In: XIV ICOLD, pp 371–390

  27. Shuttoh K (1983) Basic studies on plastic concrete (CBC) for cut off wall. J Concr Eng 21(11):49–60

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Yu Y, Pu J, Ugai K (1997) Study of mechanical properties of soil-cement mixture for a cutoff wall. Soils Found 37(4):93–103. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf.37.4_93

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Yu Y, Pu J, Ugai K, Hara T (1999) A study on the permeability of soil-cement mixture. Soils Found 39(5):145–149. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf.39.5_145

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Mahasneh BZ, Shawabkeh RA (2004) Compressive strength and permeability of sand-cement-clay composite and application for heavy metals stabilization. Am J Appl Sci 1:1–4

    Google Scholar 

  31. Bellezza I, Fratalocchi E (2006) Effectiveness of cement on hydraulic conductivity of compacted soil–cement mixtures. Proc Inst Civ Eng Ground Improv 10(2):77–90. https://doi.org/10.1680/grim.2006.10.2.77

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Yongfeng D, Songyu L, Jian’an H, Kan L, Yanjun D, Fei J (2012) Strength and permeability of cemented soil with PAM. Grout Deep Mix 2012:1800–1807. https://doi.org/10.1061/9780784412350.0155

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Jamshidi RJ, Lake CB (2015) Hydraulic and strength properties of unexposed and freeze–thaw exposed cement-stabilized soils. Can Geotech J 52(3):283–294. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2014-0100

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Lake CB, Yousif MA-M, Jamshidi RJ (2017) Examining freeze/thaw effects on performance and morphology of a lightly cemented soil. Cold Reg Sci Technol 134:33–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2016.11.006

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Li M-c, Guo X-y, Shi J, Zhu Z-b (2015) Seepage and stress analysis of anti-seepage structures constructed with different concrete materials in an RCC gravity dam. Water Sci Eng 8(4):326–334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wse.2015.10.001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. ASTM (2012) ASTM D698, Standard test methods for laboratory compaction characteristics of soil using standard effort. In: Annual Book of ASTM Standards. American Society for Testing and Materials. Annual Handbook. ASTM, Philadelphia

  37. ASTM (1996) ASTM D558, Standard test methods for moisture-density relations of soil-cement mixtures. American Society for Testing and Materials. Annual Handbook, vol 5. West Conshohocken

  38. ASTM (2007) ASTM D1633 standard test methods for compressive strength of molded soil-cement cylinders, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, USA. American Society for Testing and Materials. Annual Handbook. West Conshohocken

  39. ASTM (1990) ASTM D5084 standard test method for measurement of hydraulic conductivity of saturated porous materials using a flexible wall permeameter. American Society for Testing and Materials. Annual Handbook, vol 4. West Conshohocken

  40. ASTM (2007) ASTM D5856 standard test method for measurement of hydraulic conductivity of porous material using a rigid-wall, compaction-mold permeameter. American Society for Testing and Materials. Annual Handbook. ASTM International, West Conshohocken

  41. Aghajani HF, Karimi S, Hatefi Diznab M (2022) An experimental and machine-learning investigation into compaction of the cemented sand-gravel mixtures and influencing factors. Transp Infrastruct Geotechnol. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40515-022-00244-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Mohamedzein YE-A, Al-Rawas AA (2011) Cement-stabilization of sabkha soils from Al-Auzayba, Sultanate of Oman. Geotech Geol Eng 29(6):999. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-011-9432-y

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Reddy BV, Kumar PP (2011) Cement stabilised rammed earth. Part A: compaction characteristics and physical properties of compacted cement stabilised soils. Mater Struct 44(3):681–693. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-010-9658-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Wu P, Molenaar A, Houben IL (2011) Cement-bound road base materials. Submitted to Delft University of Technology, Delft

    Google Scholar 

  45. Baldovino JdJA, Izzo RLdS, Pereira MD, Rocha EVdG, Rose JL, Bordignon VR (2020) Equations controlling tensile and compressive strength ratio of sedimentary soil–cement mixtures under optimal compaction conditions. J Mater Civ Eng 32(1):04019320. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002973

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Barati S, Shourijeh PT, Samani N, Asadi S (2020) Stabilization of iron ore tailings with cement and bentonite: a case study on Golgohar. mine. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-020-01843-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Estabragh A, Beytolahpour I, Javadi A (2011) Effect of resin on the strength of soil-cement mixture. J Mater Civ Eng 23(7):969–976. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000252

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Alavi AH, Gandomi AH, Mollahassani A, Heshmati AA, Rashed A (2010) Modeling of maximum dry density and optimum moisture content of stabilized soil using artificial neural networks. J Plant Nutr Soil Sci 173(3):368–379. https://doi.org/10.1002/jpln.200800233

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Karimi S, Aghajani HF (2023) The strength and microstructure of cemented sand-gravel (CSG) mixture containing fine-grained particles. Int J Geo Eng 14(1):5. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40703-023-00182-1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Khaliq SU, Jamil I, Ullah H (2018) Evaluating permeability and mechanical properties of waste marble dust mix concrete and bentonite mix concrete. In: Proceedings of the international structural engineering and construction, Brisbane, Australia, pp 3–5

  51. Amhadi TS, Assaf GJ (2020) Strength and permeability potentials of cement-modified desert sand for roads construction purpose. Innov Infrastruct Solut 5(3):79. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41062-020-00327-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Moon DH, Grubb DG, Reilly TL (2009) Stabilization/solidification of selenium-impacted soils using Portland cement and cement kiln dust. J Hazard Mater 168(2–3):944–951. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.02.125

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Choobbasti AJ, Kutanaei SS (2017) Microstructure characteristics of cement-stabilized sandy soil using nanosilica. J Rock Mech Geotech Eng 9(5):981–988. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2017.03.015

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Preetham H, Nayak S (2019) Geotechnical investigations on marine clay stabilized using granulated blast furnace slag and cement. Int J Geosynth Ground Eng 5(4):28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40891-019-0179-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Tabet WE, Cerato AB, Elwood Madden AS, Jentoft RE (2018) Characterization of hydration products’ formation and strength development in cement-stabilized kaolinite using TG and XRD. J Mater Civ Eng 30(10):04018261. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002454

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Chrysochoou M (2014) Investigation of the mineral dissolution rate and strength development in stabilized soils using quantitative X-ray diffraction. J Mater Civ Eng 26(2):288–295. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000814

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Abbey SJ, Eyo EU, Ng’ambi S (2020) Swell and microstructural characteristics of high-plasticity clay blended with cement. Bull Eng Geol Env 79(4):2119–2130. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-019-01621-z

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Adeboje AO, Kupolati WK, Sadiku ER, Ndambuki JM, Kambole C (2020) Experimental investigation of modified bentonite clay-crumb rubber concrete. Constr Build Mater 233:117187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117187

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Morsy M, Alsayed S, Aqel M (2010) Effect of nano-clay on mechanical properties and microstructure of ordinary Portland cement mortar. Int J Civ Environ Eng IJCEE-IJENS 10(01):23–27

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Azarbaijan Shahid Madani University, Kilometer 35 of Tabriz/Azarshahr Road, P.O. Box 53714-161, 5375171379, Tabriz, Iran

    Sina Karimi & Hamed Farshbaf Aghajani

Authors
  1. Sina Karimi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Hamed Farshbaf Aghajani
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Hamed Farshbaf Aghajani.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.

Ethical approval

This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.

Informed consent

Written informed consent for publication of their clinical details and/or clinical images was obtained from the patient/parent/guardian/relative of the patient.

Availability of data and material

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Karimi, S., Farshbaf Aghajani, H. A new solution for water-tightening of the cemented sand-gravel (CSG) hardfill dams. Innov. Infrastruct. Solut. 8, 173 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41062-023-01137-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s41062-023-01137-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation