Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

What College Freshmen Believe About Themselves: An Investigation of Mathematical Mindset, Identity, Self-Efficacy, and Use of Self-Regulated Learning Strategies in Mathematics

  • Published:
International Journal of Research in Undergraduate Mathematics Education Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Knowing what first-time freshmen in mathematics believe to be true about themselves as they arrive on a college campus provides valuable perspectives about freshman mathematics learners. We investigated how gender, high school mathematics course history, and university mathematics course placement are related to first-time freshmen’s mathematical mindset, identity, self-efficacy, and use of self-regulated learning strategies. A survey was completed by 293 first-time freshmen at a four-year university in the United States. Participants were enrolled in one of three university mathematics courses and completed a survey during the first week of class in Fall 2018. Results found that students’ mean scores for mathematical self-efficacy and use of self-regulated learning strategies were close to 4, and mathematical mindset and identity were close to 3 on a 5-point scale, where larger values corresponded to a more positive response. A multivariate analysis of variance was conducted on mean subscale scores, followed by analyses of variance. Calculus I students expressed significantly stronger mathematical identity than Intermediate Algebra students, and students who took advanced mathematics courses in high school expressed both stronger mathematical identity and self-efficacy than those who had taken only up to Algebra 2. Gender was not a significant differentiator among students, and neither mathematical mindset nor use of self-regulated learning strategies varied significantly across any subgroups.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Data Availability

The survey data on which this paper draws is available upon request to the author.

References

  • ACT. (2017). The condition of college and career readiness 2017 (ACT Report MS2043). http://www.act.org/condition2017

  • Adelman, C. (1999). Answers in the tool box: Academic intensity, attendance patterns, and bachelor’s degree attainment (ED431363). U.S. Department of Education. ERIC. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED431363.pdf

  • Adelman, C., Daniel, B., Berkovits, I, & Owings, J. (2003). Postsecondary attainment, attendance, curriculum and performance (NCES 2003–394).Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, U. S. Department of Education. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2003/2003394.pdf

  • Adelman, C. (2006). The toolbox revisited: Paths to degree completion from high school through college. U.S. Department of Education. https://www2.ed.gov/rschstat/research/pubs/toolboxrevisit/toolbox.pdf

  • Aguirre, J., Mayfield-Ingram, K., & Martin, D. (2013). The impact of identity in K-8 mathematics: Rethinking equity-based practices. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

  • Anderson, R. (2007). Being a mathematics learner: Four faces of identity. The Mathematics Educator, 27(1), 7–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrews, A., & Brown, J. (2015). The effects of math anxiety. Education, 135(3), 362–370.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arnold, K. D., Lu, E. C., & Armstrong, K. J. (2012). The ecology of college readiness. ASHE Higher Education Report, 38(5), 1–138.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aronson, J., Fried, C. B., & Good, C. (2002). Reducing the effects of stereotype threat on African American college students by shaping theories of intelligence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38(2), 113–125. https://doi.org/10.1006/jesp.2001.1491

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • AVID. (n.d.). What is AVID? https://www.avid.org/what-avid-is

  • Ayebo, A., Ukkelberg, S., & Assuah, C. (2017). Success in introductory calculus: The role of high school and pre-calculus preparation. International Journal of Research in Education and Science, 3(1), 11–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bahr, P. R. (2008). Does mathematics remediation work? A comparative analysis of academic attainment among community college students. Research in Higher Education, 49(5), 420–450. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-008-9089-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bai, B., & Wang, J. (2023). The role of growth mindset, self-efficacy and intrinsic value in self-regulated learning and English language learning achievements. Language Teaching Research, 27(1), 207–228. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168820933190

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191–215.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1986). The explanatory and predictive scope of self-efficacy theory. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 4(3), 359–373. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.1986.4.3.359

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W.H. Freeman and Company.

  • Barnard, L., Lan, W. Y., To, Y. M., Paton, V. O., & Lai, S. L. (2009). Measuring self-regulation in online and blended learning environments. Internet and Higher Education, 12(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2008.10.005

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barr, D., & Wessel, L. (2018). Rethinking course structure: Increased participation and persistence in introductory post-secondary mathematics courses. Fields Mathematics Education Journal, 3(3), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40928-017-0004-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beijaard, D., Meijer, P. C., & Verloop, N. (2004). Reconsidering research on teachers’ professional identity. Teaching and Teacher Education, 20(2), 107–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2003.07.001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benken, B. M., Ramirez, J., Li, X., & Wetendorf, S. (2015). Developmental mathematics success: Impact of students’ knowledge and attitudes. Journal of Developmental Education, 38(2), 14–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berger, J.-L., & Karabenick, S. A. (2011). Motivation and students’ use of learning strategies: Evidence of unidirectional effects in mathematics classrooms. Learning and Instruction, 21(3), 416–428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2010.06.002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bian, L., Leslie, S.-J., & Cimpian, A. (2017). Gender stereotypes about intellectual ability emerge early and influence children’s interests. Science, 355(6323), 389–391. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aah6524

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bishop, J. P. (2012). “She’s always been the smart one. I’ve always been the dumb one”: Identities in the mathematics classroom. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 43(1), 34–74. https://doi.org/10.5951/jresematheduc.43.1.0034

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blackwell, L. S., Trzesniewski, K. H., & Dweck, C. S. (2007). Implicit theories of intelligence predict achievement across an adolescent transition: A longitudinal study and an intervention. Child Development, 78(1), 246–263. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.00995.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boaler, J. (2010) The elephant in the classroom: Helping children learn and love maths. Souvenir Press.

  • Boaler, J. (2016). Mathematical mindsets: Unleashing students’ potential through creative math, inspiring messages, and innovative teaching. Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bourke, B., Bray, N. J., & Horton, C. C. (2009). Approaches to the core curriculum: An exploratory analysis of top liberal arts and doctoral-granting institutions. The Journal of General Education, 58(4), 219–240.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boylan, H. R., & Bonham, B. S. (2007). 30 years of developmental education: A retrospective. Journal of Developmental Education, 30(3), 2–4.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boylan, H. R., Bonham, B. S., & White, S. R. (1999). Developmental and remedial education in postsecondary education. New Directions for Higher Education, 108(1999), 87–101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bressoud, D. M. (2015). Insights from the MAA national study of college calculus. Mathematics Teacher, 109(3), 178–185.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Briley, J. S., Thompson, T., & Iran-Nejad, A. (2009). Mathematical beliefs, self-regulation, and achievement by university students in remedial mathematics courses. Research in the Schools, 16(2), 15–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, S. D., Tramayne, S., Hoxha, D., Telander, K., Fan, X., & Lent, R. W. (2008). Social cognitive predictors of college students’ academic performance and persistence: A meta-analytic path analysis. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 72(3), 298–308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2007.09.003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bryk, A. S., & Treisman, U. (2010). Make math a gateway, not a gatekeeper. Chronicle of Higher Education, 56(32), B19–B20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burris, C. C., Heubert, J. P., & Levin, H. M. (2004). Math acceleration for all. Educational Leadership, 61(5), 68–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Callahan, J., & Belcheir, M. (2017). Testing our assumptions: The role of first course grade and course level in Mathematics and English. Journal of College Student Retention, 19(2), 161–175. https://doi.org/10.1177/1521025115611620

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cavallo, A. M. L., Potter, W. H., & Rozman, M. (2004). Gender differences in learning constructs, shifts in learning constructs, and their relationship to course achievement in a structured inquiry, yearlong college physics course for life science majors. School Science and Mathematics, 104(6), 288–300.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Champion, J., & Mesa, V. (2016). Factors affecting calculus completion among U.S. high school students. In D. M. Bressoud (Ed.), The role of calculus in the transition from high school to college mathematics: Report of the workshop held at the MAA Carriage House, Washington, DC, March 17–19, 2016 (pp. 9–26). https://www.maa.org/sites/default/files/RoleOfCalc_rev_0.pdf

  • Champion, J., & Mesa, V. (2018). Pathways to calculus in U.S. high schools. PRIMUS: Problems, Resources, and Issues in Mathematics Undergraduate Studies, 28(6), 508–527. https://doi.org/10.1080/10511970.2017.1315473

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chan, R. C. H. (2022). A social cognitive perspective on gender disparities in self-efficacy, interest, and aspirations in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM): The influence of cultural and gender norms. International Journal of STEM Education, 9(37), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-022-00352-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Charles A. Dana Center, Student Achievement Partners, & Education Strategy Group. (2022). Re-envisioning mathematics pathways to expand opportunities: The landscape of high school to postsecondary course sequences. https://edstrategy.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/Re-Envisioning-Mathematics-Pathways-to-Expand-Opportunities_FINAL.pdf

  • Chemers, M. M., Hu, L., & Garcia, B. F. (2001). Academic self-efficacy and first year college student performance and adjustment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(1), 55–64. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.93.1.55

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, P., & Zimmerman, B. (2007). A cross-national comparison study on the accuracy of self-efficacy beliefs of middle-school mathematics students. The Journal of Experimental Education, 75(3), 221–244.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chestnut, E. K., Lei, R. F., Leslie, S.-J., & Cimpian, A. (2018). The myth that only brilliant people are good at math and its implications for diversity. Education Sciences, 8(2), 65–73. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci8020065

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Claro, S., Paunesku, D., & Dweck, C. S. (2016). Growth mindset tempers the effects of poverty on academic achievement. PNAS, 113(31), 8664–8668.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cleary, T. J., & Chen, P. P. (2009). Self-regulation, motivation, and math achievement in middle school: Variations across grade level and math context. Journal of School Psychology, 47(5), 291–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2009.04.002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cleary, T. J., & Kitsantas, A. (2017). Motivation and self-regulated learning influences on middle school mathematics achievement. School Psychology Review, 46(1), 88–107. https://doi.org/10.17105/SPR46-1.88-107

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, G. L., & Garcia, J. (2008). Identity, belonging, and achievement: A model, interventions, implications. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17(6), 365–369. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00607.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cribbs, J., Hazari, Z., Sonnert, G., & Sadler, P. (2015). Establishing an explanatory framework for mathematics identity. Child Development, 86(4), 1048–1062.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cribbs, J., Huang, X., & Piatek-Jimenez, K. (2021). Relations of mathematics mindset, mathematics anxiety, mathematics identity, and mathematics self-efficacy to STEM career choice: A structural equation modeling approach. School Science and Mathematics, 121(5), 275–287. https://doi.org/10.1111/ssm.12470

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cvencek, D., Brečić, R., Gaćeša, D., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2021). Development of math attitudes and math self-concepts: Gender differences, implicit–explicit dissociations, and relations to math achievement. Child Development, 92(5), e940–e956. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13523

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davenport, E. C., Davison, M. L., Kuang, H., Ding, S., Kim, S.-E., & Kwak, N. (1998). High school mathematics course-taking by gender and ethnicity. American Educational Research Journal, 35(3), 497–514.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Denworth, L. (2019, August 12). Debate arises over teaching “growth mindsets” to motivate students. Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/debate-arises-over-teaching-growth-mindsets-to-motivate-students/

  • Deshler, J., Fuller, E., & Darrah, M. (2019). Affective states of university developmental mathematics students and their impact on self-efficacy, belonging, career identity, success and persistence. International Journal of Research in Undergraduate Mathematics Education, 5(3), 337–358. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40753-019-00096-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dounay, J. (2006, April). Embedding college readiness indicators in high school curriculum and assessments [Policy Brief]. Education Commission of the States. http://www.ecs.org/clearinghouse/68/55/6855.pdf

  • Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. Random House.

  • Eagan, M. K., Stolzenberg, E. B., Zimmerman, H. B., Aragon, M. C., Whang Sayson, H., & Rios-Aguilar, C. (2017). The American freshman: National norms fall 2016. Higher Education Research Institute, UCLA. https://www.heri.ucla.edu/monographs/TheAmericanFreshman2016.pdf

  • Ellis, J., Fosdick, B. K., & Rasmussen, C. (2016). Women 1.5 times more likely to leave STEM pipeline after calculus compared to men: Lack of mathematical confidence a potential culprit. PLoS ONE, 11(7), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0157447

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, J., Kelton, M. L., & Rasmussen, C. (2014). Student perceptions of pedagogy and associated persistence in calculus. ZDM Mathematics Education, 2014(46), 661–673. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-014-0577-z

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Else-Quest, N. M., Hyde, J. S., & Linn, M. C. (2010). Cross-national patterns of gender differences in mathematics: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 136(1), 103–127. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018053

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Etsy. (n.d.). Search results for “growth mindset posters for classroom.” Retrieved June 23, 2023, from https://www.etsy.com/search?q=growth%20mindset%20posters%20for%20classroom&ref=search_bar

  • Falco, L., & Summers, J. (2019). Social persuasions in math and their prediction of STEM courses self-efficacy in middle school. The Journal of Experimental Education, 89(4), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.2019.1681350

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Finkelstein, N., Fong, A., Tiffany-Morales, J., Shields, P., & Huang, M. (2012). College bound in middle school and high school? How math course sequences matter. The Center for the Future of Teaching and Learning at WestEd. https://www.wested.org/resources/college-bound-in-middle-school-and-high-school-how-math-course-sequences-matter/#

  • Froiland, J. M., & Davison, M. L. (2016). The longitudinal influences of peers, parents, motivation, and mathematics course-taking on high school math achievement. Learning and Individual Differences, 50, 252–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.07.012

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ganley, C. M., & Lubienski, S. T. (2016). Mathematics confidence, interest, and performance: Examining gender patterns and reciprocal relations. Learning and Individual Differences, 47, 182–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.01.002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Good, C., Rattan, A., & Dweck, C. S. (2012). Why do women opt out? Sense of belonging and women’s representation in mathematics. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(4), 700–717. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026659

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, S. P. (2008). What's wrong with college algebra? PRIMUS: Problems, Resources, and Issues in Mathematics Undergraduate Studies, 18(6), 516–541. https://doi.org/10.1080/10511970701598752

  • Grant, H., & Dweck, C. S. (2003). Clarifying achievement goals and their impact. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(3), 541–553. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.3.541

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gunderson, E. A., Ramirez, G., Levine, S. C., & Beilock, S. L. (2012). The role of parents and teachers in the development of gender-related math attitudes. Sex Roles, 66(3–4), 153–166. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-9996-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hackett, G. (1985). Role of mathematics self-efficacy in the choice of math-related majors of college women and men: A path analysis. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 32(1), 47–56. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.32.1.47

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, J. M., & Ponton, M. K. (2005). Mathematics self-efficacy of college freshman. Journal of Developmental Education, 28(3), 26–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harper, M., & Reddy, A. A. (2013). Mathematics placement at the University of Illinois. PRIMUS: Problems, Resources, and Issues in Mathematics Undergraduate Studies, 23(8), 683–702. https://doi.org/10.1080/10511970.2013.801378

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heggart, K. (2015, February 4). Developing a growth mindset in teachers and staff. edutopia.org. https://www.edutopia.org/discussion/developing-growth-mindset-teachers-and-staff

  • Heller, N. S. (2015). To be or not to be a math person: Math identity dissonance in ninth grade students (Publication No. 3703328) [Doctoral dissertation, City University of New York]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.

  • Herriott, S. R., & Dunbar, S. R. (2009). Who takes College Algebra? PRIMUS: Problems. Resources, and Issues in Mathematics Undergraduate Studies, 19(1), 74–87. https://doi.org/10.1080/10511970701573441

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herzog, S. (2005). Measuring determinants of student return vs. dropout/stopout vs. transfer: A first-to-second year analysis of new freshmen. Research in Higher Education, 46(8), 883–928.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heyder, A., Weidinger, A. F., & Steinmayr, R. (2021). Only a burden for females in math? Gender and domain differences in the relation between adolescents’ fixed mindsets and motivation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 50(1), 117–188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-020-01345-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hong, Y., Chiu, C., Dweck, C. S., Lin, D.M.-S., & Wan, W. (1999). Implicit theories, attributions, and coping: A meaning system approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(3), 588–599.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Horn, L., & Nuñez, A.-M. (2000). Mapping the road to college: First-generation students’ math track, planning strategies, and context of support (NCES 2000–153). National Center for Education Statistics, U. S. Department of Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoyt, J. E., & Sorensen, C. T. (2001). High school preparation, placement testing, and college remediation. Journal of Developmental Education, 25(2), 26–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hsieh, W.-J., Powell, T., Tan, K., & Chen, J.-H. (2021). Kidcope and the COVID-19 pandemic: Understanding high school students’ coping and emotional well-being. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(19), 10207. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910207

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huang, C. (2013). Gender differences in academic self-efficacy: A meta-analysis. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 28(1), 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-011-0097-y

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hurford, D. P., Ivy, W. A., Winters, B., & Eckstein, H. (2017). Examination of the variables that predict freshman retention. The Midwest Quarterly, 58(3), 302–317.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hwang, N. Y., Reyes, M., & Eccles, J. S. (2019). Who holds a fixed mindset and whom does it harm in mathematics? Youth & Society, 51(2), 247–267. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X16670058

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hyde, J. S., & Mertz, J. E. (2009). Gender, culture, and mathematics performance. PNAS, 106(22), 8801–8807. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0901265106

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jaggars, S. S., & Stacey, G. W. (2014). What we know about developmental education outcomes (CCRC Research Overview January 2014). Community College Research Center. https://ccrc.tc.columbia.edu/media/k2/attachments/what-we-know-about-developmental-education-outcomes.pdf

  • Johns, C. (2020). Self-regulation in first-semester calculus. International Journal of Research in Undergraduate Mathematics Education, 6, 404–420. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40753-020-00114-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, S. H., Campbell, B. D., & Villanueva, I. (2019). An investigation of self-efficacy and topic emotions in entry-level engineering design learning activities. International Journal of Engineering Education, 35(1A), 15–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Khan Academy. (n.d.). Growth mindset activities. https://www.khanacademy.org/college-careers-more/learnstorm-growth-mindset-activities-us

  • Landau, S., & Everitt, B. S. (2004). A handbook of statistical analyses using SPSS. Chapman & Hall/CRC Press.

  • Laskasky, K. (2018). The relationship between secondary students' mathematics identities, problem solving,and self-regulation (Publication No. 2821) [Doctoral dissertation, Loyola University Chicago]. Theses and Dissertations at Loyola eCommons. https://ecommons.luc.edu/luc_diss/2821

  • Lent, R. W., Lopez, F. G., & Bieschke, K. J. (1991). Mathematics self-efficacy: Sources and relation to science-based career choice. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38(4), 424–430.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levere, J. L. (2018, September 9). Role models tell girls that STEM's for them in new campaign. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/09/business/media/ad-council-stem-girls.html

  • Ley, K., & Young, D. B. (1998). Self-regulation behaviors in underprepared (developmental) and regular admission college students. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 23(1), 42–64. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1997.0956

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lindberg, S. M., Hyde, J. S., Petersen, J. L., & Linn, M. C. (2010). New trends in gender and mathematics performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 136(6), 1123–1135. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021276

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Long, M. C., Iatarola, P., & Conger, D. (2009). Explaining gaps in readiness for college-level math: The role of high school courses. Education Finance and Policy, 4(1), 1–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ma, X., & Wilkins, J. L. M. (2007). Mathematics coursework regulates growth in mathematics achievement. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 38(3), 230–257. https://doi.org/10.2307/30034867

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maciejewski, W., Tortora, C., & Bragelman, J. (2021). Beyond skill: Students’ dispositions towards math. Journal of Developmental Education, 44(2), 18–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mangels, J. A., Butterfield, B., Lamb, J., Good, C., & Dweck, C. S. (2006). Why do beliefs about intelligence influence learning success? A social cognitive neuroscience model. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 1(2), 75–86. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsl013

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • May, D. K. (2009). Mathematics self-efficacy and anxiety questionnaire (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia.

  • Medina, E. (2011). Improving student mathematics achievement through self regulation and goal setting. In M.S. Plakhotnik, S.M. Nielsen, & D.M. Pane (Eds.), Proceedings of the Tenth Annual College of Education & GSN Research Conference (pp. 147–153). Florida International University. https://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1179&context=sferc&httpsredir=1&referer=

  • Midgley, C., Feldlaufer, H., & Eccles, J. S. (1989). Change in teacher efficacy and student self and task-related beliefs during the transition to junior high school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(2), 247–258.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moore, C. (2019, December 10). 11 Mindset activities and tests designed to nurture growth. PositivePsychology.com. https://positivepsychology.com/mindset-activities-tests/

  • Mueller, C. M., & Dweck, C. S. (1998). Praise for intelligence can undermine children’s motivation and performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(1), 33–52. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.75.1.33

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • National Center for Education Statistics. (2009). The High School Longitudinal Study of 2009 (HSLS:09) [Data files and reports]. https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/hsls09/hsls09_data.asp

  • National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (1989). Curriculum and evaluation standards for school mathematics.

  • National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2014). Principles to actions: Ensuring mathematical success for all.

  • National Research Council. (2001). Adding it up: Helping children learn mathematics. National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/9822

  • Ndum, E., Allen, J., Way, J., & Casillas, A. (2018). Explaining gender gaps in English Composition and College Algebra in college: The mediating role of psychosocial factors. Journal of Advanced Academics, 29(1), 56–88. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932202X17740331

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nearchou, F., Flinn, C., Niland, R., Subramaniam, S. S., & Hennessy, E. (2020). Exploring the impact of COVID-19 on mental health outcomes in children and adolescents: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(22), 8479. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17228479

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Newman, R. S. (2002). How self-regulated learners cope with academic difficulty: The role of adaptive help seeking. Theory into Practice, 41(2), 132–138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Norton, P., Bridges, W., & High, K. (2018). Impact of course policy changes on Calculus I DFW rates. Journal of STEM Education, 19(1), 5–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nota, L., Soresi, S., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2004). Self-regulation and academic achievement and resilience: A longitudinal study. International Journal of Educational Research, 41(2004), 198–215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2005.07.001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pajares, F. (2002). Gender and perceived self-efficacy in self-regulated learning. Theory into Practice, 41(2), 116–125.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pajares, F., & Graham, L. (1999). Self-efficacy, motivation constructs, and mathematics performance of entering middle school students. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 24(2), 124–139.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parker, M. (2005). Placement, retention, and success: A longitudinal study of mathematics and retention. The Journal of General Education, 54(1), 22–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paulhus, D. L., & Vazire, S. (2007). The self-report method. In R. W. Robins, R. C. Fraley, & R. F. Krueger (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in personality psychology (pp. 224–239). Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paunesku, D., Walton, G. M., Romero, C., Smith, E. N., Yeager, D. S., & Dweck, C. S. (2015). Mind-set interventions are a scalable treatment for academic underachievement. Psychological Science, 26(6), 784–793. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797615571017

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Penner, A. M., & Paret, M. (2008). Gender differences in mathematics achievement: Exploring the early grades and the extremes. Social Science Research, 37(1), 239–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2007.06.012

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peters, M. L. (2013). Examining the relationships among classroom climate, self-efficacy, and achievement in undergraduate mathematics: A multi-level analysis. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 11(2), 459–480. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-012-9347-y

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pintrich, P. R., & De Groot, E. V. (1990). Motivational and self-regulated learning components of classroom academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(1), 33–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-0355(99)00015-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pintrich, P. R., Smith, D. A. F., Garcia, T., & McKeachie, W. J. (1991). A manual for the use of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) (ED338122). National Center for Research to Improve Postsecondary Teaching and Learning. ERIC. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED338122.pdf

  • Priess-Groben, H. A., & Hyde, J. S. (2017). Implicit theories, expectancies, and values predict mathematics motivation and behavior across high school and college. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 46(6), 1318–1332. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0579-y

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Recber, S., Isiksal, M., & Koç, Y. (2018). Investigating self-efficacy, anxiety, attitudes and mathematics achievement regarding gender and school type. Anales de Psicología, 34(1), 41–51. https://doi.org/10.6018/analesps.34.1.229571

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, C. (2017). Growth mindset in the classroom. Science Scope, 41(2), 18–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robinson-Cimpian, J. P., Lubienski, S. T., Ganley, C. M., & Copur-Gencturk, Y. (2014). Teachers’ perceptions of students’ mathematics proficiency may exacerbate early gender gaps in achievement. Developmental Psychology, 50(4), 1262–1281. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035073

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rose, H., & Betts, J. R. (2001). Math matters: The links between high school curriculum, college graduation, and earnings. Public Policy Institute of California.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosen, J. A., Porter, S. R., & Rogers, J. (2017). Understanding student self-reports of academic performance and course-taking behavior. AERA Open, 3(2), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858417711427

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosin, M. (2012, February). Passing when it counts: Math courses present barriers to student success in California community colleges (Issue Brief). Edsource. https://edsource.org/wp-content/publications/pub12-Math2012Final.pdf

  • Rubel, L. H. (2016). Speaking up and speaking out about gender in mathematics. Mathematics Teacher, 109(6), 434–439.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rutschow, E. Z. (2017, May 31). Math for life: Preliminary results from the CAPR study of Dana Center Mathematics Pathways. Center for the Analysis of Postsecondary Readiness, Teachers College, Columbia University. https://postsecondaryreadiness.org/math-life-dana-center-mathematics-pathways/

  • Sadler, P. M., & Sonnert, G. (2017). Factors influencing success in introductory college calculus. In D. M. Bressoud (Ed.), The role of calculus in the transition from high school to college mathematics: Report of the workshop held at the MAA Carriage House, Washington, DC, March 17–19, 2016 (pp. 53–65). https://www.maa.org/sites/default/files/RoleOfCalc_rev_0.pdf

  • Sadler, P. M., & Sonnert, G. (2018). The path to college calculus: The impact of high school mathematics coursework. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 49(3), 292–329. https://doi.org/10.5951/jresematheduc.49.3.0292

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Samuel, T. S., & Warner, J. (2019). “I can math!”: Reducing math anxiety and increasing math self-efficacy using a mindfulness and growth mindset-based intervention in first-year students. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 45(3), 205–222. https://doi.org/10.1080/10668926.2019.1666063

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2001). The development of academic self-efficacy. In A. Wigfield & J. Eccles (Eds.), Development of achievement motivation (pp. 15–31). Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scott-Clayton, J., & Rodriguez, O. (2012). Development, discouragement, or diversion? New evidence on the effects of college remediation [NBER Working Paper 18328]. National Bureau of Economic Research. http://www.nber.org.www2.lib.ku.edu/papers/w18328

  • Small, D. (2002). An urgent call to improve traditional College Algebra programs [Editorial commentary on the Conference to Improve College Algebra held at the U.S. Military Academy, February 7–10, 2002]. https://taunvut.ga/zmg4.pdf

  • Snyder, T. D., de Brey, C., & Dillow, S. A. (2019). Digest of education statistics 2017 (NCES 2018–070). National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2018/2018070.pdf

  • Solomon, Y. (2007). Not belonging? What makes a functional learner identity in the undergraduate mathematics community of practice? Studies in Higher Education, 32(1), 79–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stage, F. K., & Kloosterman, P. (1995). Gender, beliefs, and achievement in remedial college-level mathematics. The Journal of Higher Education, 66(3), 294–311. https://doi.org/10.2307/2943893

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sun, K. L. (2018). The role of mathematics teaching in fostering student growth mindset. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 49(3), 330–355.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Talsma, K., Schüza, B., Schwarzerc, R., & Norris, K. (2018). I believe, therefore I achieve (and vice versa): A meta-analytic cross-lagged panel analysis of self-efficacy and academic performance. Learning and Individual Differences, 61(2018), 136–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2017.11.015

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • TeachersPayTeachers. (n.d.). Search results for “growth mindset posters for classroom.” Retrieved June 23, 2023, from https://www.teacherspayteachers.com/Browse/Search:growth%20mindset%20posters%20for%20classroom

  • Thibodeaux, J., Deutsch, A., Kitsantas, A., & Winsler, A. (2017). First-year college students’ time use: Relations with self-regulation and GPA. Journal of Advanced Academics, 28(1), 5–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932202X16676860

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thiel, T., Peterman, S., & Brown, M. (2008). Addressing the crisis in college mathematics: Designing courses for student success. Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning, 40(4), 44–49. https://doi.org/10.3200/CHNG.40.4.44-49

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tyson, W., Lee, R., Borman, K. M., & Hanson, M. A. (2007). Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) pathways: High school science and math coursework and postsecondary degree attainment. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 12(3), 243–270. https://doi.org/10.1080/10824660701601266

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Updegraff, K. A., Eccles, J. S., Barber, B. L., & O’Brien, K. M. (1996). Course enrollment as self-regulatory behavior: Who takes optional high school math courses? Learning and Individual Differences, 8(3), 239–259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Usher, E. L., & Pajares, F. (2009). Sources of self-efficacy in mathematics: A validation study. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 34(1), 89–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2008.09.002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Veenstra, C. P. (2009). A strategy for improving freshman college retention. The Journal for Quality and Participation, 31(4), 19–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Venezia, A., & Jaeger, L. (2013). Transitions from high school to college. The Future of Children, 23(1), 117–136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wade, C. H., Sonnert, G., Wilkens, C. P., & Sadler, P. M. (2017). High school preparation for college calculus: Is the story the same for males and females? The High School Journal, 100(4), 250–263.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • WeAreTeachers. (n.d.). Search results for “growth mindset activities.” Retrieved June 25, 2023 from https://www.weareteachers.com/?s=growth+mindset+activities&submit=Search

  • Whiton, J. C., Rethinam, V., & Preuss, M. D. (2018). High school factors predicting enrollment in developmental courses. Journal of Developmental Education, 42(1), 8–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, C. (2015). Examining openness to pedagogical change among secondary mathematics teachers: Developing and testing a structural model (Publication No. 10003482) [Doctoral dissertation, The University of North Dakota]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.

  • Yeager, D. S., & Dweck, C. S. (2012). Mindsets that promote resilience: When students believe that personal characteristics can be developed. Educational Psychologist, 47(4), 302–314.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yeager, D. S., Hanselman, P., Walton, G. M., Murray, J. S., Crosnoe, R., Muller, C., Tipton, E., Schneider, B., Hulleman, C., Hinojosa, C. P., Paunesku, D., Romero, C., Flint, K., Roberts, A., Trott, J., Iachan, R., Buontempo, J., Yang, S. M., & Carvalho, C.,… Dweck, C. (2019). A national experiment reveals where a growth mindset improves achievement. Nature, 57(3), 364–269. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1466-y

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, B. J. (1986). Becoming a self-regulated learner: Which are the key subprocesses? Contemporary Educational Psychology, 11(4), 307–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/0361-476X(86)90027-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, B. J. (1995). Self-efficacy and educational development. In A. Bandura (Ed.), Self-efficacy in changing societies (pp. 202–231). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511527692.009

  • Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Self-efficacy: An essential motive to learn. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 82–91. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1016

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, B. J. (2002). Becoming a self-regulated learner: An overview. Theory into Practice, 41(2), 64–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, B. J. (2008). Investigating self-regulation and motivation: Historical background, methodological developments, and future prospects. American Educational Research Journal, 45(1), 166–183. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831207312909

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

There was no funding agency involved in the research for this study.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Mathematics, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, Eau Claire, WI, USA

    Katrina Stullken Rothrock

  2. Department of Curriculum and Teaching and Department of Mathematics, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA

    A. Susan Gay

Authors
  1. Katrina Stullken Rothrock
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. A. Susan Gay
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

The article is based on the research completed by K. S. Rothrock for a dissertation under the supervision of A. S. Gay. Both authors contributed to the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Katrina Stullken Rothrock.

Ethics declarations

Approval for the study was gained from the University of Kansas Institutional Review Board, and informed consent was received from all participants.

Conflict of Interest

On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Rothrock, K.S., Gay, A.S. What College Freshmen Believe About Themselves: An Investigation of Mathematical Mindset, Identity, Self-Efficacy, and Use of Self-Regulated Learning Strategies in Mathematics. Int. J. Res. Undergrad. Math. Ed. (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40753-023-00229-9

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40753-023-00229-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation