Abstract
This exploratory study assesses the utility of the U.S. version of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) teacher form as a screener for mental health and behavior concerns. The SDQ was administered to a heavily economically vulnerable, Latinx community sample of 391 students in grades K-6. Internal reliability and differences by sex and grade were analyzed, and multidimensional item response theory models were conducted. Support was found for a five-factor model allowing factor scores to be used to differentiate between student abilities. Results revealed that the U.S. version of the SDQ teacher form was adequate for identifying students from a majority Latinx population who are experiencing general difficulties; however, utilization of the SDQ as a standalone measure is not indicated. Teachers rated boys higher on total difficulties, conduct, hyperactivity–inattention, and social concern scales. Girls were rated higher on prosocial scales. Grade level differences are also noted. Findings of this exploratory study indicate that items on the SDQ teacher form don’t differentiate ability in an ideal manner. Recommendations for interpretation of the SDQ, as well as future research, are provided.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Manual for the child behavior checklist 4–18 and 1991 profile. University of Vermont Department of Psychiatry.
Achenbach, T. M., Becker, A., Döpfner, M., Heiervang, E., Roessner, V., Steinhausen, H., & Rothenberger, A. (2008). Multicultural assessment of child and adolescent psychopathology with ASEBA and SDQ instruments: Research findings, applications, and future directions. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49(3), 251–275. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01867.x.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Publishing.
Becker, A., Steinhausen, H., Baldursson, G., Dalsgaard, S., Lorenzo, M. J., Ralston, S. J., et al. (2006). Psychopathological screening of children with ADHD: Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire in a pan-European study. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 15(Suppl1), 56–62. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-006-1008-7.
Bøe, T., Hysing, M., Skogen, J. C., & Breivik, K. (2016). The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ): Factor structure and gender equivalence in Norwegian adolescents. PLoS ONE, 11(5), 15.
Bourdon, K. H., Goodman, R., Rae, D. S., Simpson, G., & Koretz, D. S. (2005). The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: U.S. normative data and psychometric properties. Journal of the Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 44(6), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.chi.0000159157.57075.c8.
Bruhn, A. L., Woods-Groves, S., & Huddle, S. (2014). A preliminary investigation of emotional and behavioral screening practices in K-12 schools. Education and Treatment of Children, 37, 611–634. https://doi.org/10.1353/etc.2014.0039.
Costello, E., He, J., Sampson, N., Kessler, R., & Merikangas, K. (2014). Services for adolescents with psychiatric disorders: 12-month data from the National Comorbidity Survey–Adolescent. Psychiatric Services, 65(3), 359–366.
Crocker, L., & Algina, J. (1986). Introduction to classical and modern test theory. Orlando, FL: Harcourt.
Dettlaff, A. J., & Cardoso, J. B. (2010). Mental health need and service use among Latino children of immigrants in the child welfare system. Children and Youth Services Review, 32(10), 1373–1379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2010.06.005.
Di Riso, D., Salcuni, S., Chessa, D., Raudino, A., Lis, A., & Altoè, G. (2010). The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Early evidence of its reliability and validity in a community sample of Italian children. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(6), 570–575. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.05.005.
Dickey, W. C., & Blumberg, S. J. (2004). Revisiting the factor structure of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: United States, 2001. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 43(9), 1159–1167. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.chi.0000132808.36708.a9.
Distefano, C., & Morgan, G. (2014). A comparison of diagonal weighted least squares robust estimation techniques for ordinal data. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 21(3), 425–438. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2014.915373.
Downs, A., Strand, P. S., Heinrichs, N., & Cerna, S. (2012). Use of the teacher version of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire with German and American preschoolers. Early Education & Development, 23(4), 493–516. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2010.532082.
Ellis, K., Jones, F. W., & Mallett, J. (2014). Differences in the factor structure of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire in Northern Irish children. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 20(3), 330–333. https://doi.org/10.1037/pac0000041.
Emam, M. M., Abu Hilal, M. M., Kazem, A. M., & Alkharousi, S. J. (2016). Psychometric properties of the Arabic self-report version of the Strengths and Difficulties questionnaire. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 59, 211–220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2016.09.002.
Embretson, S. E., & Reise, S. P. (2000). Item response theory for psychologists. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum
Ezpeleta, L., Granero, R., de la Osa, N., Penelo, E., & Domènech, J. M. (2013). Psychometric properties of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire in 3-year-old preschoolers. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 54(3), 282–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2012.07.009.
Feil, E. G., Walker, H., Severson, H., & Ball, A. (2000). Proactive screening for emotional/behavioral concerns in head start preschools: Promising practices and challenges in applied research. Behavioral Disorders, 26(1), 13–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/019874290002600103.
Fortuna, K. & Knafo, A. (2014). Parental and genetic contributions to prosocial behavior during childhood. In L. M. Padilla-Walker, & G. Carlo (Eds.). Prosocial development: A multidimensional approach (np). doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199964772.001.0001
Gage, N. A., Wilson, J., & MacSuga-Gage, A. (2014). Writing performance of students with emotional and/or behavioral disabilities. Behavioral Disorders, 40, 3–14. https://doi.org/10.17988/0198-7429-40.1.3.
Galvan, T., & Gudiño, O. G. (2019). Understanding Latinx youth mental health disparities by problem type: The role of caregiver culture. Psychological Services.
Goodman, R. (1997). The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38(5), 581–586. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01545.x.
Goodman, R. (2001). Psychometric properties of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(11), 1337–1345. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200111000-00015.
Goodman, A., Lamping, D. L., & Ploubidis, G. B. (2010). When to use broader internalising and externalising subscales instead of the hypothesised five subscales on the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ): Data from British parents, teachers and children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38(8), 1179–1191. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-010-9434-x.
Gudiño, O. G., Lau, A. S., Yeh, M., McCabe, K. M., & Hough, R. L. (2009). Understanding racial/ethnic disparities in youth mental health services: Do disparities vary by problem type? Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 17(1), 3–16.
Hagquist, C. (2007). The psychometric properties of the self-reported SDQ—An analysis of Swedish data based on the Rasch model. Personality and Individual Differences, 43(5), 1289–1301.
Hartig, J., & Höhler, J. (2009). Multidimensional IRT models for the assessment of competencies. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 35(2-3), 57–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stueduc.2009.10.002.
Hill, C. R., & Hughes, J. N. (2007). An examination of the convergent and discriminant validity of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. School Psychology Quarterly, 22(3), 380–406. https://doi.org/10.1037/1045-3830.22.3.380.
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118.
Ikeda, M. J., Neessen, E., & Witt, J. C. (2008). Best practices in universal screening. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V (pp. 17–36). National Association of School Psychologists.
Kamphaus, R. W., Reynolds, C. R., & Dever, B. V. (2014). Behavioral and mental health screening. In R. J. Kettler, T. A. Glover, C. A. Albers, & K. A. Feeney-Kettler (Eds.), Universal screening in educational settings: Evidence-based decision making for schools (pp. 3–16). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14316-000.
Keller, F., & Langmeyer, A. (2019). An item response theory analysis of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 35(2), 266–279. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000390.
Kettler, R. J., Glover, T. A., Albers, C. A., & Feeney-Kettler, K. A. (2014). An introduction to universal screening in education settings. In R. J. Kettler, T. A. Glover, C. A. Albers, & K. A. Feeney-Kettler (Eds.), Universal screening in educational settings: Evidence-based decision making for schools (pp. 3–16). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14316-000.
Kline, R. (2015). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Koehler, K. J., & Larntz, K. (1980). An empirical investigation of goodness-of-fit statistics for sparse multinomials. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 75(370), 336–344.
Leech, N., Barrett, K., & Morgan, G. (2015). IBM SPSS for intermediate statistics: Use and Interpretation (5th ed.). Taylor & Francis.
Levitt, J. M., Saka, N., Romanelli, L. H., & Hoagwood, K. (2007). Early identification of mental health problems in schools: The status of instrumentation. Journal of School Psychology, 45(2), 163–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2006.11.005.
Merikangas, K. R., He, J., Burstein, M., Swendsen, J., Avenevoli, S., Case, B., Georgiades, K., Heaton, L., Swanson, S., & Olfson, M. (2011). Service utilization for lifetime mental disorders in U.S. adolescents: Results of the national comorbidity Survey–Adolescent supplement (NCS-A). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 50(1), 32–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2010.10.006.
Mieloo, C. L., Bevaart, F., Donker, M. C. H., can Oort, F. V. A., Raat, H., & Jansen, W. (2014). Validation of the SDQ in a multi-ethnic population of young children. European Journal of Public Health, 24(1), 26–32. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckt100.
Muthén, B. (1984). A general structural equation model with dichotomous, ordered categorical, and continuous latent variable indicators. Psychometrika, 49(1), 115–132.
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2017). Mplus user’s guide (Version 8.4) [Computer software and manual]. Muthén & Muthén www.statmodel.com.
Niclasen, J., Skovgaard, A. M., Andersen, A. M. N., Sømhovd, M. J., & Obel, C. (2013). A confirmatory approach to examining the factor structure of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ): A large scale cohort study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41(3), 355–365. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-012-9683-y.
Palmieri, P. A., & Smith, G. C. (2007). Examining the structural validity of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) in a U.S. sample of custodial grandmothers. Psychological Assessment, 19(2), 189–198. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.19.2.189.
Pastor, P. N., Reuben, C. A., & Duran, C. R. (2012). Identifying emotional and behavioral problems in children aged 4–17 years: United states, 2001–2007. National Health Statistics Reports, 48, 1–17.
Reckase, M. D. (2009). Multidimensional item response theory. Springer.
Rodríguez-Hernández, P. J., Betancort, M., Ramírez-Santana, G. M., García, R., Sanz-Álvarez, E. J., & De las Cuevas-Castresana, C. (2012). Psychometric properties of the parent and teacher versions of the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) in a Spanish sample. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, 12(2), 265–279.
Romer, D., & McIntosh, M. (2005). The roles and perspectives of school mental health profession- also in promoting adolescent mental health. In D. L. Evans, E. B. Foa, R. E. Gur, H. Hendin, C. P. O'Brien, M. E. P. Seligman, & B. T. Walsh (Eds.), Treating and preventing adolescent mental health disorders: What we know and what we don’t know (pp. 598–615). Oxford University Press.
Rønning, J. A., Handegaard, B. H., Sourander, A., & Mørch, W. T. (2004). The Strengths and Difficulties Self-Report Questionnaire as a screening instrument in Norwegian community samples. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 13(2), 73–82. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-004-0356-4.
Rose, A. J., & Rudolph, K. D. (2006). A review of sex differences in peer relationship processes: Potential trade-offs for the emotional and behavioral development of girls and boys. Psychological Bulletin, 132(1), 98–131. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.98.
Ruchkin, V., Jones, S., Vermeiren, R., & Schwab-Stone, M. (2008). The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: The self-report version in American urban and suburban youth. Psychological Assessment, 20(2), 175–182. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.20.2.175.
Ruchkin, V., Koposov, R., Vermeiren, R., & Schwab-Stone, M. (2012). The Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire: Russian validation of the teacher version and comparison of teacher and student reports. Journal of Adolescence, 35(1), 87–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.06.003.
Sanford, C., Newman, L., Wagner, M., Cameto, R., Knokey, A. M., & Shaver, D. (2011). The post-high school outcomes of young adults with disabilities up to 6 years after high school: Key findings from the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2) (NCSER 2011-3004). Retrieved from https://ies.ed.gov/ncser/pubs/20113004/pdf/20113004.pdf
Stone, L. L., Otten, R., Engels, R. C. M. E., Vermulst, A. A., & Janssens, J. M. A. M. (2010). Psychometric properties of the parent and teacher versions of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire for 4- to 12-year-olds: A review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 13(3), 254–274. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-010-0071-2.
Thabet, A. A., Stretch, D., & Vostanis, P. (2000). Child mental health problems in Arab children: Application of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 46(4), 266–280. https://doi.org/10.1177/002076400004600404.
Tobia, V., & Marzocchi, G. M. (2017). The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire-Parents for Italian school-aged children: Psychometric properties and norms. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 49, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-017-0723-2.
U.S. Department of Education, & Office of Civil Rights . (2016). Civil rights data collection: A first look. Retrieved from http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/2013-14-first-look.pdf
United States Census Bureau. (2018). QuickFacts: United States. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US/IPE120216#qf-headnote-b
Van Leeuwen, K., Meerschaert, T., Bosmans, G., De Medts, L., & Braet, C. (2006). The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire in a community sample of young children in Flanders. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 22(3), 189–197. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759.22.3.189.
Wagner, M., & Newman, L. (2012). Longitudinal transition outcomes of youth with emotional disturbances. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 35(3), 199–208. https://doi.org/10.2975/35.3.2012.199.208.
Whitney, D. G., & Peterson, M. D. (2019). US national and state-level prevalence of mental health disorders and disparities of mental health care use in children. JAMA Pediatrics, 173(4), 389–391.
Yu, J., Sun, S., & Cheah, C. S. L. (2016). Multitrait–multimethod analysis of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire in young Asian American children. Assessment, 23(5), 603–613. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191115586459.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical Approval
This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Bosik, S.W., Harris, B., Alibrahim, N. et al. Construct Validity of the Teacher Version of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire in a Sample of Elementary-Aged Children in the United States. Contemp School Psychol 26, 518–534 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40688-021-00371-8
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40688-021-00371-8