Abstract
Despite the common usage of the term executive functioning in neuropsychology, several aspects of this concept remain unsettled. In this paper, we will address some of the issues surrounding the notion of executive functioning and how an understanding of executive functioning and its components might assist school-based practitioners to better understand children and their difficulties in being successful in school. Specifically, we will review current definitions of executive functioning and discuss the strengths and limitations of different approaches to the assessment of executive functioning for school-based practitioners.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adila, A. (2008). On the evolutionary origins of executive functions. Brain and Cognition, 68, 92–99.
Alvarez, J. A., & Emory, E. (2006). Executive functions and the frontal lobes: a meta-analytic review. Neuropsychology Review, 16, 17–42.
Anderson, P. (2002). Assessment and development of executive function during childhood. Child Neurospsychology, 8, 71–82.
Anderson, P. (2007). Toward a developmental model of executive function. In V. Anderson, R. Jacobs, & P. J. Anderson (Eds.), Executive functions and the frontal lobes: A lifespan perspective (pp. 3–21). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.
Anderson, V. A., Anderson, P., Northam, E., Jacobs, R., & Catroppa, C. (2001). Development of executive functions through late childhood and adolescence in an Australian sample. Developmental Neuropsychology, 20(1), 385–406.
Anderson, V. A., Anderson, P., Northam, E., Jacobs, R., & Mikiewicz, O. (2002). Relationships between cognitive and behavioral measures of executive function in children with brain disease. Child Neuropsychology, 4, 231–240. doi:10.1076/chin.8.4.231.13509.
Baddeley, A. (2000). The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory? Trends in Cognitive Science, 4(11), 416–423.
Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. (1974). Working memory. In K. W. Spence & J. T. Spence (Eds.), The psychology of learning and motivation (pp. 47–87). New York, NY: Academic.
Baker, S., Rogers, R., Owen, A., Firth, C., Dolan, R., Frackowiak, R., et al. (1996). Neural systems engaged by planning: a PET study of the tower of London task. Neuropsychologia, 34(6), 515–526.
Barkley, R. A. (1997). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychological Bulletin, 121(1), 65–94.
Berninger, V. W., & Richards, T. (2002). Brain literarcy for educators and psychologists. New York, NY: Academic.
Berstein, J. H., & Waber, D. P. (2007). Executive capacities from a developmental perspective. In L. Meltzer (Ed.), Executive function in education (pp. 39–54). New York: Guilford Press.
Borkowski, J. G., & Burke, J. E. (1996). Theories, models, and measurements of executive funtioning: an information processing perspective. In G. R. Lyon (Ed.), Attention, memory and executive function (pp. 235–261). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
Brown, T. E. (2005). Attention deficit disorder: the unfocused mind in children and adults. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Burgess, P. W. (1997). Theory and methodology in executive function research. In P. Rabbit (Ed.), Methodology of frontal and executive function (pp. 81–116). Hove, England: Psychology Press.
Bush, G. W. (1990, July). Presidential Proclamation 6158. (Presidential proclamation). Available from http://www.loc.gov/loc/brain/proclaim.html. Accessed 27 Mar 2012
Busse, R. T. (2005). Rating scale applications within the problem-solving model. In R. Brown-Chidsey (Ed.), Assessment for Intervention: A problem-solving approach (pp. 200–218). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Busse, R. T., Hass, M., & Domzalski, S. (2011, April). Assessment of academic task attack strategy deficits. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the California Association of School Psychologists, Costa Mesa, CA
Channon, S., Drury, H., Orth, M., Robertson, M. M., & Crawford, S. (2009). Tourette's syndrome (TS): inhibitory performance in adults wth ucomplicated TS. Neuropsychology, 23(3), 359–366.
Clark, C. A. C., Pritchard, V. E., & Woodward, L. J. (2010). Preschool executive functioning abilities predict mathematical achievement. Developmental Psychology, 46(5), 1176–1191.
Conners, C. K. (2008). Conners (3rd ed.). North Tonawanda, NY: MHS.
Cutting, L. E., Materek, A., Cole, C. A. S., Levine, T., & Mahone, E. M. (2009). Effects of fluency, oral language, and executive function on reading comprehension performance. Annals of Dyslexia, 59(1), 34–54.
D'Amato, R. C., Fletcher-Janzen, E., & Reynolds, C. R. (Eds.). (2005). Handbook of school neuropsychology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Dawson, P., & Guare, R. (2004). Executive skills in children and adolescents: a practical guide to assessment and intervention. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
DiPerna, J. C., Volpe, R. J., & Elliot, S. N. (2001). A model of academic enablers and elementary reading/language arts achievement. School Psychology Review, 31(3), 298–312.
Donders, J. (2002). The behavior rating inventory of executive function: introduction. Child Neuropsychology, 8(4), 229–230.
Duncan, J., Emslie, H., Williams, P., Johnson, R., & Freer, C. (1996). Intelligence and the frontal lobe: the organization of goal-directed behavior. Cognitive Psychology, 30(3), 257. Available from http://search.proquest.com/docview/213633586?accountid=10051
Duncan, J., Parr, A., Woolgar, A., Thompson, R., Bright, P., Cox, S., . . . Nimmo-Smith, I. (2008). Goal neglect and spearman's g: Competing parts of a complex task. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 137(1), 131. Available from http://search.proquest.com/docview/213805973?accountid=10051
Fisher, K. W., & Daley, S. G. (2007). Connecting cognitive science and neuroscience to education. In L. Meltzer (Ed.), Executive function in education (pp. 55–75). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
Ford, L., Floyd, R. G., Keith, T. Z., Fields, C., & Schrank, F. A. (2003). Using the Woodcock–Johnson III tests of cognitive ability with students with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. In F. A. Schrank & D. P. Flanagan (Eds.), WJ III clinical use and interpretation: scientist-practitioner perspectives (pp. 320–377). San Diego, CA: Elsevier.
Gardner, H., & Moran, S. (2006). The science of multiple intelligences theory: a response to Lynn Waterhouse. Educational Psychologist, 41(4), 227–232.
Gioia, G. A., Isquith, P. K., Guy, S. C., & Kenworthy, L. (2000). Behavior rating inventory of executive function (BRIEF). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Gioia, G. A., Isquith, P. K., Retzlaff, P., & Espy, K. A. (2002). Confirmatory factor analysis of the BRIEF in a clinical sample. Child Neuropsychology, 8, 249–257.
Gioia, G. A., Isquith, P. K., & Kenealy, L. E. (2008). Assessment of behavioral aspects of executive function. In V. Anderson, R. Jacobs, & P. J. Anderson (Eds.), Executive functions and the frontal lobes: a lifespan perspective (pp. 179–202). Philadelphia, PA: Taylor & Francis.
Hale, J. B., & Fiorello, C. A. (2004). School neuropsychology: a practitioner's handbook. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Hudson, J. A., Shapiro, L. R., & Sosa, B. B. (1995). Planning in the real world: preschool children's scripts and plans for familiar events. Child Development, 66, 984–998.
Jurado, M., & Rosselli, M. (2007). The elusive nature of executive functions: a review of our current understanding. Neuropsychological Review, 17, 213–233.
Korkman, M., Kirk, U., & Kemp, S. (2007). NEPSY (2nd ed.) (NEPSY-II). San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Assessment.
Lezak, M. (1983). Neuropsychological assessment (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Locascio, G., Mahone, E. M., Eason, S. H., & Cutting, L. E. (2010). Executive dysfunction among children with reading comprehension deficits. Journal of Learning Disabilites, 43(5), 441–454.
Luit, J. E., Kroesbergen, E. H., & Naglieri, J. A. (2005). Utility of the PASS theory and cognitive assessment system for Dutch children with and without ADHD. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38(5), 434–439.
Luria, A. R. (1973). The working brain: an introduction to neuropsychology. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Mares, D. E., & Avirett, E. (2012). The role of cognitive and intelligence tests in the assessment of executive functions. In D. P. Flanagan, J. L. Genshaft, & P. L. Harrison (Eds.), Contemporary intellectual assessment: theories, tests, and issues (pp. 820–851). New York: Guilford Press.
Maricle, D. E. & Avirett, E. (2012). The role of cognitive and intelligence tests in the assessment of executive functions. In D. P. Flanagan & P. L. Harrison (Eds.), Contemporary intellectual assessment: Theories, tests, and issues (3rd ed.), (pp. 820–838). New York: Guilford Press.
Mares, D., McLuckie, A., Schwartz, M., & Sani, M. (2007). Executive function impairments in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: do they differ between school and home environments. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 52(8), 527–534.
Mazzocco, M. M. M. (2001). Math learning disabilities and math LD subtypes: evidence from studies of Turner syndrome, fragile X syndrome, and neurofibromatosis type 1. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34(6). doi:10.1177/002221940103400605
McGrew, K., Schrank, F. A., & Woodcock, R. W. (2007). Test review: Woodcock Johnson tests of cognitive achievement, form C brief battery. Rolling Meadows, IL: Riverside.
Meltzer, L. (2010). Promoting executive function in the classroom. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
Meltzer, L., & Krishnan, K. (2007). Executive function difficulties and learning disabilities: understandings and misunderstandings. In L. Meltzer (Ed.), Executive function in education: from theory to practice (pp. 77–105). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Merrell, K. W. (2008). Behavioral, social, and emotional assessment of children and adolescents (3rd ed.). London, England: Taylor and Francis/Routledge.
Miller, D. C. (2007). Essentials of school neuropsychological assessment. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Miller, D. C. (Ed.). (2009). Best practices in school neuropsychology: guidelines for effective practice, assessment, and evidence-based intervention. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Milner, B. (1963). Effects of different brain lesions on card sorting. Archives of Neurology, 9, 90–100.
Morris, R. G., Ahmed, S., Syed, G. M., & Toone, B. K. (1993). Neural correlates of planning ability: frontal lobe activation during the Tower of London test. Neuropsychologia, 31, 1367–1378.
Naglieri, J. A., & Das, J. P. (1997a). Cognitive assessment system. Itasca, IL: Riverside.
Naglieri, J. A., & Das, J. P. (1997b). Cognitive assessment system: administration and scoring manual. Itasca, IL: Riverside.
Naglieri, J. A., Goldstein, S., Iseman, J. S., & Schweback, A. (2003). Performance of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and anxiety/depression on the WISC III and cognitive assessment system (CAS). Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 21, 32–42.
Naglieri, J. A., Salter, C. J., & Edwards, G. H. (2004). Assessment of children with attention and reading difficulties using the PASS theory and the cognitive assessment system. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 22, 93–105.
Ozonoff, S., & Schetter, P. L. (2007). Executive dysfunction in autism spectrum disorders: from research to practice. In L. Meltzer (Ed.), Executive function in education: From theory to practice (pp. 133–161). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
Passler, M., Issac, W., & Hynd, G. (1985). Neuropsychological development of behavior attributed to the frontal lobe functioning in children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 1(4), 349–370.
Pennington, B. F., & Ozonoff, S. (1996). Executive functions and developmental psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37(1), 51–87.
Pratt, B., Campbell-LaVoie, F., Isquith, P. K., Gioia, G. A., & Guy, S. C. (2000). The comparative development of executive function in elementary school children with reading disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 6, 127.
Reynolds, C. R., & Kamphaus, R. W. (2004). BASC-2: behavior assessment system for children manual (2nd ed.). Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
Salthouse, T., & Davis, H. P. (2006). Organization of cognitive abilities and neuropsychological variables across the lifespan. Developmental Review, 26, 31–54.
Schrank, F. A., Flanagan, D. P., Woodcock, R. W., & Mascolo, J. T. (2002). Essentials of WJ III cognitive abilities assessment. New York, NY: Wiley.
Sesma, H. M., Mahone, E. M., Levine, T., Eason, S. H., & Cutting, L. E. (2009). The contribution of executive skills to reading. Child Neuropsychology, 15(3), 232–246.
Shallice, T. (1982). Specific impairments of planning. In D. Broadbent & L. Weiskrantz (Eds.), The neuropsychoogy of cognitive function (pp. 199–209). London, England: The Royal Society.
Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18, 643–661.
Stuss, D. T., & Alexander, M. (2000). Executive functions and the frontal lobes: a conceptual view. Psychological Research, 63, 289–298.
Swanson, H. L., & Beebe-Frankenberger, M. (2004). The relationship between working memory and mathematical problem solving in children at risk and not at risk for serious math difficulties. Journal for Educational Psychology, 96(3), 471–491. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.96.3.471.
Swanson, H. L., & Hoskyn, M. (1998). Experimental intervention research on students with learning disabilities: a meta-analysis of treatment outcomes. Review of Educational Reserch, 68(1), 277–321.
Varma, S., McCandliss, B. D., & Schwartz, D. L. (2008). Scientific and pragmatic challenges for bridging education and neuroscience. Educational Researcher, 37(3), 140–152.
Woodcock, R. W., McGrew, K. S., & Mather, N. (2001). Woodcock–Johnson III tests of achievement. Itasca, IL: Riverside.
Zelazo, P. D., Carter, A., Reznick, J. S., & Frye, D. (1997). Early development of executive functions: a problem-solving framework. Review of General Psychology, 1(2), 198–226.
Zelazo, P. D., Qu, L., & Muller, U. (2004). Hot and cold aspects of executive function: Relations in early development. In W. Schneider, R. Shumann-Hengsteler, & B. Sodian (Eds.), Young children's cognitive development: interrelationships among executive function, working memory, verbal ability, and thoery of mind (pp. 71–93). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Eribaum Associates.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Hass, M.R., Patterson, A., Sukraw, J. et al. Assessing Executive Functioning: A Pragmatic Review. Contemp School Psychol 18, 91–102 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40688-013-0002-6
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40688-013-0002-6