1 Introduction

Aging is a multidimensional phenomenon influenced by cultural, social, and economic variables (Lak et al. 2020). In the case of older adult inhabitants from Castilla-La Mancha (C-LM), the processes within their respective habitats and the implemented action policies have a significant impact on the multidimensional aspects of aging (Lak et al. 2020). However, traditional categories such as age, sex, or habitat may not provide sufficient insight into the aging process (Peláez Mondragón 2017). Therefore, additional factors, such as lifestyle and a gender perspective, should be considered in research studies to enhance the prediction of outcomes (Fernández-Mayoralas et al. 2018). To develop reliable predictors, it is necessary to gain a more in-depth understanding of reality by analyzing profiles associated with individuals’ lifestyles (Fernández-Mayoralas et al. 2018). By incorporating new elements into the analysis, researchers can identify emerging trends and patterns in the observed realities. This approach allows for a more comprehensive estimation and interpretation of the aging process in C-LM and beyond.

From a logical-contextual perspective, aging is viewed as a social and cultural conception that is shaped by the environmental contexts in which individuals reside and develop (Oswald et al. 2011). Extensive literature supports the notion that both environmental and personal factors play a crucial role in influencing the health and participation of older adults in various activities (Annear et al. 2014; Zamarrón Cassienllo 2013). The increasing life expectancy witnessed in the last century has necessitated a shift towards enhancing the quality of life for older individuals. To achieve this, it becomes imperative to study older people within their natural environments (Liu 2018; Monreal-Bosch et al. 2015; Rodríguez-Rodríguez and Sánchez-González 2016). By examining the experiences of older adults in their everyday surroundings, researchers gain valuable insights into the contextual factors that influence their well-being and participation in society. Understanding the interplay between personal attributes and environmental influences provides a comprehensive understanding of the aging process. It allows for the development of interventions and policies that effectively address the needs and aspirations of older adults, thereby promoting healthier and more inclusive aging experiences.

The perception of older adults as passive and interdependent individuals, whose lives are solely determined by their environment, has been repeatedly portrayed in a stereotypical manner. However, the field of environmental gerontology challenges this notion and emphasizes the elements associated with active aging processes. Through empirical research, it has been shown that older adults can maintain high levels of activity and productivity throughout the aging process. Environmental gerontology has discredited the notion of passivity in older age by demonstrating that individuals can actively engage in managing their adaptation to the physical and social environment. Moreover, older adults can contribute their philanthropic assistance and collaborate with society (Rodríguez-Rodríguez and Sánchez-González 2016). This perspective highlights the potential for continued personal growth, meaningful engagement, and active participation of older adults in their communities. By debunking the stereotype of older adults as passive and dependent, environmental gerontology underscores the importance of creating environments that facilitate active aging. This shift in perception opens doors for promoting independence, well-being, and the valuable contributions of older adults to society.

Research has indicated that geographical location can influence the leisure activities of older adults (Aristegui et al. 2015). Environmental gerontology further highlights how the environment can shape the participation in leisure activities, with each setting offering varying opportunities (Dapia Conde 2012). For example, in rural areas, older adults may face challenges in accessing certain goods and services due to geographical distances and limited infrastructure, which can hinder their participation (Blanding et al. 1993; Siegenthaler 1996). Moreover, studies have shown significant differences in the provision of care facilities and behavioral patterns among older adults residing in rural and urban areas (Marcellini et al. 2007; Su et al. 2006; Van der Meer 2008; Van Montfort et al. 2018). These differences are attributed to the distinct characteristics of each environment, such as the availability of resources, social networks, and support systems. Understanding the impact of environments or habitats on leisure activities and the provision of care facilities is crucial for developing targeted interventions and policies that address the unique needs of older adults in different settings. By recognizing the disparities and challenges faced by older individuals residing in rural areas, efforts can be made to improve access to resources, promote social inclusion, and enhance their overall well-being. Similarly, interventions in urban areas can focus on enhancing community infrastructure and support systems to facilitate active and fulfilling lifestyles for older adults.

As previously mentioned, the variations in activity types and satisfaction levels among older adults primarily stem from their health status and potential limitations (Broughton and Beggs 2007). However, another significant environmental factor influencing a given subject is the home atmosphere or the physical dwelling itself. While specific factors may vary across countries, homeownership remains a prevailing trend in many regions of Spain, including C-LM. In this regard, research suggests that individuals become less inclined to make structural modifications to their homes as they age, despite the increasing need for such changes (Lou et al. 2022; Mascarilla Miró and Crespí Vallbona 2013).

The trend associated with lifestyle attributes holds significant importance in understanding the aging process, which can vary based on factors such as age, gender, and living environment. Furthermore, maintaining healthy social relationships plays a crucial role in determining the well-being of individuals, regardless of their life stage. Therefore, the establishment of positive social connections is closely linked to personal success and overall quality of life (Díaz-López et al. 2013). Based on the gathered data and considering previous studies conducted by Cardenal and Fierro (2001) and Meléndez et al. (2009), it can be concluded that both gender and age do not significantly influence the outcomes. In addition to the importance of social bonds, active social participation is a significant indicator of the quality of life during adulthood. It plays a crucial role in mitigating the negative effects of aging, encompassing physical, mental, and social changes, and acts as a preventive factor against depression (Díaz-López et al. 2013; Pinazo and Sánchez 2005). Moreover, adopting specific healthy habits, such as engaging in regular physical exercise, has a positive impact on health, self-concept, and overall well-being (Díaz-López et al. 2017; Goñi and Infante 2010; Li et al. 2018).

In terms of training processes, the availability of data on the participation of older individuals in training courses is limited, as highlighted by Villar et al. (2016). However, the author asserts that predictors such as gender, age, and living environment significantly influence participation in training processes, with a greater emphasis on leisure activities or those related to productivity. Notably, it is observed that younger older adults tend to have higher educational levels compared to their older counterparts. Furthermore, the impact of age on literacy appears to have some influence, suggesting a continuation of interests and activities beyond the retirement transition (Villar and Celdrán 2013).

In relation to the previously mentioned educational aspects, several studies indicate that women tend to participate more than men in non-formal learning activities, such as community or non-profit organization courses (Hamil-Luker and Uhlenberg 2002), as well as in University Study Plans specifically designed for older adults (Alfageme 2007; Orte et al. 2004). However, other studies have found a minimal effect of gender on participation (Kailis and Pilos 2005; O’Donnell 2006), suggesting that the influence of gender on training aspects may not be as straightforward as initially assumed. Additionally, the geographic location of older adults can also impact their participation in educational activities. Availability of study opportunities in a person’s location can either enhance or limit their engagement in non-formal learning. It is worth noting that despite its significance, the effect of geolocation has been insufficiently considered in several studies on this topic.

In sum, the traditional sociodemographic indicators that were once considered influential in shaping the experiences of older adults, such as age, gender, and living environment, appear to have reduced their predictive power. Therefore, it is crucial to incorporate and expand upon these indicators by incorporating new categories that can provide a more accurate understanding of the trends related to the lives of older adults. Consequently, the objective of this research is to contribute to a better comprehension of the relationship between gender, age, living environment, and the lifestyles of older adults.

2 Methodology

As stated, this quantitative research is part of a larger funded study titled "Current Profile of the Older Adults in C-LM" (Ref. 200405CONV). The primary objective of the study was to examine the potential influence of sex, age, and habitat extension on the lifestyles of individuals aged 65 and above. To achieve this research goal, a cross-sectional study design was employed, utilizing primary data obtained through an ad hoc questionnaire administered via a Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI) system. The interviews had an average duration of 15 min. The survey questionnaire consisted of 50 questions covering various aspects relevant to the research, including sociodemographic factors, living conditions, households, habits, socio-economic measures, health, dependence, poverty and vulnerability, leisure and culture, attitudes and values, material wealth, use of social and welfare services, as well as understanding and usage of specialized services.

The sample for this research consists of 1,065 cases, drawn from a total population of 390,221 individuals aged 65 years and above residing in C-LM (with a 95% confidence level and a 3.5% margin of error). The selection of the representative sample was conducted proportionally, taking into account the population distribution across the Autonomous Region’s provinces, namely Albacete, Ciudad Real, Cuenca, Guadalajara, and Toledo. The stratification process was carried out based on sex quotas and age categories. The age groups were divided into three strata as follows: 65 to 71 years, 72 to 80 years, and 81 years and above. Similarly, strata were established based on the extent of the habitat, categorized as municipalities with fewer than 5,000 inhabitants, municipalities with 5,001 to 10,000 inhabitants, municipalities with 10,001 to 20,000 inhabitants, municipalities with 20,001 to 50,000 inhabitants, municipalities with 50,001 to 100,000 inhabitants, and municipalities with 100,000 inhabitants or more.

A descriptive study was conducted using the IBM Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), version 24, which is licensed by the University of Castilla-La Mancha. The analysis focused on exploring the potential relationships between the nominal variables under investigation. To assess the significance of differences in means between scale variables, t-tests were employed. Additionally, Pearson’s chi-square test was used to examine the relationship between nominal variables. A significance level of p < 0.05 was considered to determine statistically significant differences.

3 Results

To obtain an overview of the analyzed sample, the study presents sociodemographic characteristics of the population. Subsequently, the potential influence of the variables sex, age, and habitat on the sample’s lifestyles is analyzed. Upon examining the data, it was observed that the population over the age of 65 is unevenly distributed throughout the C-LM region, with the following percentages: Toledo = 32.2%; Ciudad Real = 25.9%; Albacete = 19.4%; Cuenca = 11.7%; Guadalajara = 10.8%. No significant differences were found, but these figures provide insight into the distribution of the population across the region.

In addition to the aforementioned differences, the collected data also revealed a subtle tendency for older people to reside in less densely populated areas. The distribution across different habitat sizes was as follows: ≤ 5,000 inhabitants = 31.4%; 5,001 to 20,000 inhabitants = 25.9%; 50,001 to 100,000 inhabitants = 14.3%; > 100,000 inhabitants = 8.7%. Among the provinces, Cuenca exhibited the highest concentration of the analyzed population in smaller municipalities, with 47.1% residing in districts with fewer than 5,000 inhabitants. Conversely, in Albacete and Guadalajara, the phenomenon was observed in more populous municipalities, with 44.8% residing in localities of more than 100,000 inhabitants and 32.4% residing in municipalities between 50,001 and 100,000 inhabitants, respectively.

Regarding the female population, they constitute the largest demographic group (55.4%), with a fairly equal distribution across all age groups: 65–71 = 18.8%; 72–80 = 18.6%; ≥ 81 = 18%. This extended longevity among women may indicate a certain feminization of older individuals. In terms of age, there is a reasonable balance among the different age groups: 34% fall within the 65–71 age range (18.8% being women), 33.6% are between 72 and 80 (18.6% being women), and 32.4% are 81 and older (18% being women). Women, accounting for 55.4% of the population, outnumber men and display higher longevity (44.6%).

Regarding the educational and occupational levels of the analyzed sample, it was found that 3.4% had no formal education, while 44.8% had completed compulsory secondary education (17.7% in the first cycle and 27.1% in the second cycle). Additionally, 18.3% had attained higher education levels. In terms of household sizes, the most common configurations were two-member households (39.1%), followed by three-member households (27.1%) and single-person households (22.2%). Interestingly, regardless of their educational background, the primary economic providers in these households were retirees (64.6%). However, some individuals still held employment positions, including administrators or office workers (4.6%), technicians or support professionals (4.1%), directors or managers (1.9%), and business operatives or machine operators (1.9%).

3.1 Sex Influence on Lifestyles

The present study also examined the economic situation and its potential influence on the participants’ lifestyles, revealing differences based on gender. Specifically, it was observed that a higher proportion of women (34%) receive lower incomes (< €1,000) compared to men (29.4%). In terms of homeownership, 73.6% of women own their homes, while 68% of men are homeowners. Regarding financial obligations, only 6.3% of women have pending rent or mortgage payments, whereas this figure increases to 12.4% among men. However, when these payments represent more than 75% of their income, 67.7% of the individuals affected are women, whereas when they account for less than 25% of their income, 66.9% of those affected are men.

The strongest relationships reported by the survey participants are with their relatives residing in the same locality. The findings indicate that 55.2% of respondents have daily contact with their offspring, while 37.9% have daily contact with their grandchildren. Likewise, the frequency of contact of the respondents with their grandchildren is significantly higher in men than in women (averagesFootnote 1 1.68 and 1.79 respectively [p < 0.05]). When the offspring live in different locations, the frequency of contact decreases. Specifically, 28.6% of respondents have daily contact with their offspring in such cases, and 25.9% have contact at least once a week. Similarly, the proximity factor appears to influence other social interactions, such as contact with neighbors. Among the respondents, 29.3% have daily contact with their neighbors, while 44.8% have contact at least once a week.

Among the population aged 65 or older in C-LM, several common activities are associated with socializing and leisure. These activities include talking on the phone with family and friends (74.6%), going for a walk accompanied (73.7%), eating or dining outside the home (58.4%), reading books, newspapers, or magazines (47.7%), going for tapas, drinks, or having an aperitif (44.1%), and visiting shopping malls (41.5%). A Pearson’s chi-square test was conducted to examine the relationship between the sex variable and the type of activities carried out, and it revealed significant differences (Fig. 1). The significant differences were found in activities such as visiting or receiving visits (p = 0.027), going sightseeing, traveling, or engaging in weekend getaways (p = 0.006), excursions to the countryside or natural parks (p = 0.041), and attending conferences, gatherings, and discussion forums (p = 0.000).

Fig. 1
figure 1

Activities displaying significant differences by sex. Note: [1] Visit and receive visits; [2] sightseeing, travel, weekend getaways; [3] make excursions to the countryside, natural parks; [4] go to the movies; [5] attend conferences, gatherings, and discussion forums

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Apart from the previously mentioned differences, there are variations in the frequency of certain activities among the respondents. For instance, while more women indicate their participation in a wider range of religious activities, it is observed that men attend them more regularly (mean = 2.17 in men; p = 0.015). Conversely, the trend is reversed for folkloric, bullfighting, or sports shows, where a higher percentage of men express their interest, but women attend these events more frequently (mean = 3.57 in women; mean = 3.04 in men).

The percentage of respondents who participate in courses, workshops, or seminars is 7%, while 3.1% attend conferences, forums, and debates. Generally, although there are fewer barriers preventing men from receiving training (men = 23.9% with disabilities; women = 29.1% with disabilities), men display a higher reluctance to engage in training compared to women (51.8% vs. 46.4%). Women identify higher responsibilities as a major barrier to accessing training opportunities (19.5% for females vs. 15.6% for males). Another factor contributing to women’s lower participation in training is financial constraints (8% of women cannot afford it, compared to 5.9% of men) – in addition to other unspecified reasons mentioned by respondents (12% for women vs. 6.9% for men).

Men demonstrate higher levels of social and political participation throughout their lives and have higher percentages of affiliation, as shown in Table 1. However, it is important to note that there is a noticeable decline in these percentages. In the case of women, 1.1% remain affiliated to a trade union, which is the only value that exceeds the corresponding percentage for men (0.2%).

Table 1 Social and political involvement
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In addition to the previous perspectives, differences are also observed in the analysis disaggregated by sex regarding motivations for activism. Among men, 17.6% consider citizenship involvement necessary, compared to 13.6% among women. Similarly, 15.4% of men put their ideas, values, and principles into practice, compared to 15.4% among women. Furthermore, 15.3% of men are motivated by their relationships with other people, while this percentage is lower at 10.5% among women.

On the other hand, 16.7% of women associate with the goal of having their interests and rights better preserved, compared to 12.5% among men. Additionally, 16% of women believe that by acting together, there is a tendency to better defend their interests, compared to 13.6% among men. Furthermore, women (69.3%) are primarily associated with political, business, and professional entities or institutions, while men (15%) are more involved in neighborhood associations, with a lower percentage of 8.9% among women.

Women (32%) are more actively involved in signing petitions and collecting signatures compared to men, where this activity occurs at a slightly lower percentage of 29.5%. On the other hand, men (15.2%) stand out for their engagement in purchasing or not purchasing certain products for political, ethical, or environmental reasons, compared to 13.9% among women. Additionally, men (18.9%) are more likely to donate or raise funds for political enterprises, whereas this activity is observed in 10.2% of women.

It is noteworthy that nearly 40% of the population aged 65 and older leads a sedentary lifestyle. Among sedentary individuals, 27.3% of women spend most of their day on their feet without engaging in significant physical activity, compared to 22.5% of men. Among those who engage in physical activity, the most common activities are walking (72.9%), gardening or horticulture (26.3%), hiking (26.2%), physical exercises for body preservation (21.1%), swimming or water activities (18.1%), and cycling (17%). Less frequent activities include team games (1.7%), running (2.5%), pétanque (2.5%), and golf (3%). There are significant differences in gardening or horticulture, with a higher percentage of women engaging in this practice compared to men (29.2% women vs. 23.6% men, p = 0.043). Furthermore, there are significant differences in hunting and fishing, where the number of men participating in these activities is twice that of women (8% men vs. 4.1% women, p = 0.024).

The use of information and communication technologies (ICT) among people aged 65 and older is relatively low. The majority of this population (58.8%) have not used the Internet in the last three months, while 41.8% have used it. However, there are no significant differences in Internet usage based on gender. Among those who do use ICT, the most common activities include telephoning and making video calls (28.2%), instant messaging (22.9%), receiving or sending emails (22.7%), and searching for goods and services (15.8%). It is notable that none of the interviewees use these technologies to read news, newspapers, or magazines. Additionally, only 9% of the participants are engaged in social networks.

In the analysis disaggregated by sex, some differences in Internet usage patterns are observed. Men tend to use the Internet more frequently for specific purposes such as sending forms, searching for health information, and accessing health-care services. On the other hand, women are more inclined to use the Internet for expressing their opinions on civic or political issues, listening to or downloading music, instant messaging, and watching television, films, or videos. Overall, there are no significant differences between men and women in terms of ICT usage, except for women displaying a greater lack of confidence in using the Internet for banking, shopping, or administrative tasks. It is worth noting that only 27% of the surveyed individuals consider their ICT training to be adequate, and a majority of 53.2% feel insecure in using ICT. However, only 13% of the participants expressed a willingness to undergo training to acquire the necessary skills.

In terms of available resources for the older adult population in C-LM, the most well-known services are nursing homes, remote alarm and care services, older adult, social, or home centers, as well as university and adult education institutions. On the other hand, some services are less known, such as social thermalism, the golden telephone, food and laundry services, housing for the older adults or apartments with care services, and the elder-day-stay service. There is a tendency for women to attend nursing homes less frequently than men, with only 0.7% of women compared to 3% of men using this service. However, women tend to apply more for older adult centers, with 57.3% of women compared to 49.7% of men seeking assistance from these centers.

In terms of the care variable, men are the principal care receivers, with 59% of men compared to 38.9% of women. Conversely, women take on the role of caregivers more frequently than men, with 61.1% of women compared to 41% of men serving as caregivers. When asked about housing preferences in the case of dependency, men tend to prefer staying in their usual home (62.3% of men) or in a care-adaptive home (7.2% of men), while women show a preference for living with their offspring (14.3% of women) or in a shared home with friends (4.2% of women). Regarding household responsibilities, significant differences are observed between men and women. Women are primarily responsible for cleaning (82.4%), laundry (77.4%), meals (73.2%), and providing care for relatives (70.7%). In contrast, men take on minor household repairs more frequently (67.5% of men compared to 32.5% of women). As age increases, responsibilities such as laundry, shopping, minor repairs, cleaning, and meals decrease significantly (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2
figure 2

Housework/chores responsibilities. Note: Cumulative percentages (chiefly females) by task type: Responsible for [1] doing the laundry; [2] doing minor home repairs; [3] caring for family members; [4] making the purchases; [5] doing the cleaning; [6] preparing meals/cooking

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3.2 Age Influence on Lifestyles

The analysis of the correlation between age and the frequency of contact reveals some interesting patterns (as shown in Fig. 3). It is observed that as age increases, there is a stronger correlation with increased contact with children and grandchildren, regardless of whether they live in the same locality or different ones. This correlation is highly significant in both cases (p-value of 0.000 in the two-tailed test). Additionally, as age increases, there is an overall increase in contact with neighbors, although there is a slight decrease in contact among neighbors for individuals over 81 years of age. On the other hand, the frequency of contact with friends and club/association colleagues tends to decrease as age increases. In the case of older adults receiving care, there is a significant increase in the frequency of daily contact with their children, with 94.1% of individuals aged 81 and above reporting daily contact with their children. These findings highlight the importance of family connections and neighborhood interactions in the lives of older adults, as well as the potential impact of age on social relationships and support networks.

Fig. 3
figure 3

Frequency of contact with offspring by age-range. Note: Contact with offspring living outside the municipality of people self-identified with the role of home care aide

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The analysis of activity levels in relation to age reveals a consistent pattern of decreasing participation as age increases, with significant differences observed in several activities. For example, the percentage of people aged 65–71 who go on outings to natural/national parks is 74%, which drops to 20.6% for those aged 72–80, and further decreases to 11.1% for individuals aged 81 or older. This decline in participation is statistically significant (p-value of 0.000). A similar trend is observed in meetings to play cards or other games, with participation decreasing from 46.9% in the youngest age group to 4.4% in the intermediate group and 1.7% in the oldest group (p-value of 0.000). Contrarily, as age increases, there is an increase in participation in activities such as attending older adults centers, social clubs, and retirement homes (p-value of 0.000), as well as attending folkloric, bullfighting, and sports spectacles (p-value of 0.046), going out to dance (p-value of 0.000), and participating in religious activities (p-value of 0.005). Mean differences (p-value < 0.05) have also been found in the frequency of other activities, such as having lunch or dinner outside the home and going to shopping centers, festivals, parties, or fairs. These activities become less frequent as individuals reach the age of 81 and older. These findings suggest that as people age, they may become less physically active and engage more in social activities that require less physical exertion. It is important to consider these age-related changes in activity levels when designing programs and services for older adults, ensuring that they cater to their evolving needs and preferences.

The data indicates that there is a lower interest in training among individuals aged 72 to 80. Around 54% of them do not want to pursue further studies, although 29.3% are open to the idea. Among those aged 81 or older, the interest in training decreases further, with only 23.1% expressing a desire to pursue education. The younger respondents (aged 65–71) are less affected by economic factors, with only 8.5% indicating that financial constraints prevent them from receiving training. Setting aside the training variable, it appears that individuals aged 72 to 80 (35.1%) and those aged 81 or older (36.5%) have a more committed profile about putting their ideas, values, and principles into practice. These two age groups exhibit a belief that collective action achieves more than individual efforts, with 31.6% of the 72–80 age group and 25% of the 81 + age group expressing this viewpoint. Additionally, a significant percentage of participants in both age groups (35.1% [a]; 26.9% [b]) consider citizen involvement as a necessity. These findings suggest that while interest in traditional training may decline with age, older adults still maintain a strong desire to contribute to society and make a difference. They are motivated by the opportunity to express their ideas and values, as well as the belief in the power of collective action. It is important to recognize and support the active engagement of older adults in their communities, providing platforms and opportunities for them to participate and contribute their knowledge and experiences.

The data shows that social participation varies among different age groups. Among those aged 81 or older, a significant majority (91.7%) have never been trade-unionized. On the other hand, the age group of 65–71 years old exhibits the highest level of trade union affiliation, with 16.6% of respondents being affiliated, while the majority (83.4%) have never been affiliated. In terms of political party membership, a small percentage of the population is involved. Among the respondents aged 65–71 years, 7.6% belong to a political party, with 3.7% belonging to the age group of 72–80 years and 3.9% being aged 81 or older. On citizen associationism, there are minimal differences among the age groups, with around 7% participating in such associations. Among those aged 81 or older, the primary motivations for joining social unions are relationships with other people (32.7%), engaging in activities they enjoy (28.8%), and forming friendship ties (15.4%). In contrast, the youngest age group (65–71 years old) exhibits lower percentages for these motivations, with 15.7%, 18.1%, and 3.6% respectively. Overall, the findings suggest that trade union affiliation is less prevalent among the oldest age group, while the middle-aged group shows a higher level of participation in trade unions. Political party membership is relatively low across all age groups. Citizen associationism appears to be relatively consistent among the different age groups, with motivations for participation varying slightly.

Data also reveals that there is a correlation between the age of the respondents and the type of entity they are associated with. As age increases, there is a decrease in participation in political actions among older adults. Specifically, 15.3% of people aged 81 or older participate in neighborhood associations, compared to 8.3% of those aged 65–71. Additionally, 3.4% of the older age group are linked to educational organizations, compared to 0% of the younger age group (65–71). Similarly, 3.4% of the older age group have religious affiliations, compared to 1.2% of the younger age group. It is worth noting that these affiliations to educational organizations and religious institutions are not specifically associated with older adult associations. The data indicates a decrease in political participation as age increases, suggesting that older adults may become less involved in political actions compared to younger age groups (Table 2).

Table 2 Participation in political actions
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The data reveals that there is a decrease in the use of the Internet as age increases, particularly among participants aged 81 and older. The percentage of Internet usage among participants aged 65 to 71 is 58.8%, which decreases to 49.1% among participants aged 72 to 80, and further decreases to 15.8% among participants aged 81 or older. Interestingly, despite the overall decrease in Internet usage, participants aged 81 and older use the Internet more frequently for specific purposes. They tend to use the Internet more for searching for health-related information (38.6% compared to 33.5% among those aged 65–71), watching television, films, or videos (35.1% vs. 31.1% among those aged 65–71), making calls and video calls (30.4% vs. 27.7% among those aged 65–71), and making online purchases (23.5% compared to 22.7% among those aged 65–71). On the other hand, participants aged 65 to 71 use the Internet more frequently for filling out forms (63.9% compared to 51.5% among those aged 81 or older) and messaging (23.6% compared to 21.7% among those aged 81 or older). These findings suggest that while overall Internet usage decreases with age, there are variations in specific activities conducted online among different age groups of older adults (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4
figure 4

Use of the Internet by age range (percentage Y-axis)

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The analysis of participants’ perceptions about their ICT skills reveals significant mean differences according to age groups. The younger participants (aged 65–71) and the slightly older group (aged 72–80) believe that they possess sufficient knowledge to make daily use of the Internet (average scores of 2.47 and 2.30, respectively, on a scale of 1–5 where 1 = Disagree and 5 = Strongly agree). They also feel more confident in using the Internet for maintaining relationships with others (average scores of 3.08 and 3.05, respectively) and have less suspicion or distrust when carrying out online banking, administration, and purchasing procedures (average scores of 3.32 and 3.49, respectively). On the other hand, participants in the oldest age group (aged 81 or over) express that they have less knowledge about the Internet (average score of 2.11), feel less secure in using the Internet to establish or maintain relationships (average score of 3.17), and have greater distrust or suspicion regarding online activities (average score of 3.62). These findings suggest that older participants, especially those aged 81 or over, have a lower perception of their ICT skills and feel less confident and more skeptical about using the Internet for various purposes compared to younger participants. It highlights the importance of addressing these perceptions and providing appropriate support and training to bridge the digital divide and empower older adults to make the most of ICT tools (Table 3).

Table 3 Agreement’s average measures on the use of the Internet (test on scale 1 to 5)
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The analysis of benefits and resources reveals that participants aged 81 or older are more aware of and utilize older adult centers compared to those aged 65 to 71 (12.1% vs. 7.2%). Additionally, the older group is less likely to identify themselves as non-users of this type of social center (25.4% vs. 27.3%). When it comes to the services offered by older adult centers, participants aged 81 or older tend to make more use of facilities such as the cafeteria, hairdresser, and leisure areas for card games and dominoes. On the other hand, those between 65 and 71 years old utilize these centers more for attending courses and workshops (18.5% vs. 13.1%). These findings suggest that older participants, particularly those aged 81 or older, are more engaged with and utilize the amenities provided by older adult centers. They often utilize the social aspects of these centers, such as the cafeteria and recreational activities, while the younger participants may be more interested in the educational and learning opportunities offered by the centers. It is important to consider these preferences and utilization patterns when designing and implementing programs and services in older adult centers to cater to the diverse needs and interests of different age groups.

The analysis of the care variable reveals that as individuals age, they increasingly identify themselves as care receivers rather than caregivers. Only 2.2% of participants aged 65 to 71 consider themselves care receivers, while this percentage significantly increases to 12.4% among those aged 81 or older. Conversely, the percentage of participants who see themselves as caregivers decreases with age, with 8.9% in the 65 to 71 age group and 6.8% in the 81 or older age group. When asked about their preferences for receiving care, 64% of participants aged 81 or older express a preference for receiving care at home, compared to 57.1% in the 65 to 71 age group and 60.6% in the 72 to 80 age group. Care-adaptive homes are less attractive to them, with only 3.4% expressing interest (compared to 8.3% in the 65 to 71 age group). Similarly, shared housing with friends is less preferred among the older age group, with only 2.9% indicating this option (compared to 4.2% in the 65 to 71 age group). Table 4 presents the significant concerns expressed by each age group, providing further insights into the specific worries and priorities of different age ranges regarding care. These findings highlight the shifting roles and preferences regarding care as individuals age. The preference for receiving care at home indicates a desire for aging in place and maintaining independence for as long as possible. Understanding these preferences can help inform the development of support services and care options that meet the specific needs and desires of older adults in different age groups.

Table 4 Most significant concerns by age-ranged groups
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3.3 Habitat Influence on Lifestyles

The study reveals some differences in social relationships and activities based on the size of municipalities. In smaller municipalities with fewer than 5,000 inhabitants, older adults have less contact with offspring who live in different localities compared to those living in larger municipalities. This difference is statistically significant (p = 0.044), indicating that geographical proximity may play a role in maintaining contact with family members. Furthermore, activities such as board games and cards are more popular in smaller municipalities, with a higher frequency of participation. As the population size of municipalities increases, the frequency of engagement in these activities decreases significantly (p = 0.016). This suggests that smaller communities may foster a closer-knit social environment that promotes such activities. On the other hand, activities such as reading books, the press, or magazines show a significant difference in the opposite direction. These activities are more prevalent in larger municipalities compared to smaller ones (p = 0.041). This may be attributed to the availability of more diverse cultural and educational resources in larger urban areas. Regarding training and education, differences are observed in the entities where older adults pursued their studies. In municipalities with fewer than 5,000 inhabitants, training and education are more closely related to budgetary reasons (8.3%) and addressing illiteracy (5.7%). This suggests that in smaller communities, financial considerations and addressing educational gaps may be driving factors for individuals seeking training opportunities. Overall, these findings highlight the influence of municipality size on social relationships, activities, and educational opportunities for older adults. Understanding these variations can help inform the development of targeted interventions and support systems that cater to the specific needs and preferences of older adults residing in different types of communities (Table 5).

Table 5 Training sites by population size
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Concerning the variable affiliation to citizen associations, it is observed that the smaller the size of the municipality, the greater the affiliation to this type of association: 37.7% in municipalities < 5,000 inhabitants versus 10.1% in municipalities > 100,000 inhabitants. The largest cities have the least affiliations to political parties and associations, with rates of 6.1% and 7%, respectively. In municipalities between 5,001 and 50,000 inhabitants, the highest affiliation occurs in political, business, and professional organizations (73.4%), while in municipalities < 5,000, such affiliations represent 53.2%, followed by other affiliations such as neighborhood associations (17.7%). Another noteworthy fact is that affiliations to development cooperation organizations decrease as the population increases: 6.5% in municipalities < 5,000 inhabitants, 4.3% in municipalities from 5,001 to 50,000, and 0% in municipalities > 50,000 inhabitants. Regarding political actions, no differences are observed concerning the size of the municipality.

The population size does not appear to influence activities such as walking and internet usage. In the analysis, it has been observed that walking is the most commonly performed activity across all habitats, with a prevalence of over 70% in all cases. However, there are certain leisure activities where significant differences in the correlation between activity and habitat are found (p = 0.04). For example, the game of pétanque is more prevalent in small municipalities, with a participation rate of 2.6%. No differences are found in the frequency of activities based on whether they are carried out individually or in a group. The size of the habitat does not reveal any differences in terms of internet usage, which stands at 40% across all populations. Additionally, there is a common trend observed across all populations regarding [1] lack of knowledge about information and communication technology (ICT) at a rate of 30%, [2] insecurity in establishing personal relationships on the internet (over 20%), and [3] skepticism in conducting online transactions (over 25%).

In conclusion, concerning resources for the older adult population, the data reveals a noteworthy difference in the awareness of social thermalism between localities with fewer than 5,000 inhabitants (0.9%) and municipalities with 50,000 to 100,000 inhabitants (5.7%). Additionally, there appears to be a correlation between the size of the municipality and the utilization of services provided by centers for the older adult population. In localities with fewer than 5,000 inhabitants, 57.8% of the older adult population utilizes services offered by these centers, while in towns of up to 100,000 inhabitants, the utilization rate decreases to 47.3%. However, no differences are observed in terms of the perception of caring roles, including both housework and other responsibilities, based on the size of the habitat.

4 Discussion

Based on the results, there appears to be a trend towards the homogenization of lifestyles between men and women over the age of 65 in C-LM. This trend is consistent with the findings of previous studies conducted by Cardenal and Fierro (2001), Fagerström et al. (2007), Meléndez et al. (2009), Moraes and Souza (2005), and Vozikaki et al. (2017). These studies indicate that gender does not significantly influence the perception of aging, social participation, satisfaction with life, and healthy habits among older adults. However, it is important to note that the gender variable does place women in a disadvantageous position in certain aspects. For example, women are more likely to take on caregiving responsibilities and serve as home care providers, while men are more commonly in the role of care receivers. Furthermore, women have a significantly higher level of engagement in domestic tasks, nearly 70% more than their male counterparts. This increased involvement in domestic responsibilities suggests that women have a greater temporal commitment to their private sphere compared to men, whose focus tends to be more on the public domain. It is plausible that due to this division of roles, particularly in later stages of life, men tend to make and receive more visits, interact more with grandchildren, and display a stronger political affiliation throughout their lives. These findings align with the conclusions of Fernández-Mayoralas et al. (2018). Thus, while the studies indicate a trend towards homogenization of lifestyles between men and women over 65 in C-LM, gender disparities still exist, with women being disproportionately burdened with caregiving and domestic tasks.

The above findings of this study align with the research conducted by Triadó et al. (2009), who suggest that gender plays a significant role in shaping daily life, with females dedicating more time to instrumental activities, thus restricting their leisure time. Similarly, the study is consistent with the research on participation by Tomioka et al. (2017), which highlights a higher time commitment to obligations among women and greater leisure time among men. These studies collectively demonstrate that gender differences exist not only in terms of leisure time and responsibilities, but also in economic disadvantage experienced by women. Specifically, the study reveals that women tend to earn lower incomes compared to men, and if they have housing expenses, their debt burden is typically higher. This indicates a particular vulnerability of older women compared to men in the same age group, both in terms of economic circumstances and financial stability. Overall, the convergence between this study and the research of Triadó et al. (2009) and Tomioka et al. (2017) underscores the existence of gender-related disparities in daily life, leisure time, economic well-being, and financial outcomes, with women facing greater challenges and vulnerabilities in older age.

Another noteworthy aspect is the homogenization of physical activities observed among the surveyed population, with men showing a greater interest in hunting and fishing, while women lean towards gardening. These differences can be attributed to patterns of socialization and education that shape expected behaviors based on biological differences (sex), thus influencing individuals throughout their lives (Fernández-Mayoralas et al. 2018; García Ballesteros and Jiménez Blasco 2016). However, it is important to note that biological aspects are not the sole determining factors, as age also plays a significant role in shaping lifestyles during older adulthood. Specifically, differences become more pronounced among individuals aged 81 or older, who constitute a subgroup with the highest limitations in carrying out activities that were previously performed adequately. Various factors contribute to this limitation, including health issues, decreased functionality, increased slowing of physical abilities, lower levels of vital energy, and the loss of friends and family, which reduces opportunities for social relationships (García Ballesteros and Jiménez Blasco 2016). Yet, the homogenization of physical activities is influenced by both socialization and education patterns based on gender, as well as the impact of age on lifestyles during older adulthood. While men and women tend to gravitate towards different activities, age-related limitations can affect individuals, particularly those aged 81 or older, and pose challenges in engaging in activities they previously enjoyed.

The current research aligns with existing investigations regarding the internet usage patterns of older adults, particularly in the context of seeking health-related information. It has been observed that individuals over the age of 81 tend to have more contact with their children and grandchildren but have limited interaction with friends and other relatives. As individuals age, there is a decline in activity levels, social and political participation, responsibility for household chores, and the use of information and communication technology (ICT). Moreover, this age group exhibits higher levels of insecurity in using the internet. However, they are more likely to be affiliated with community associations, possibly seeking social and relational support. Triadó et al. (2009) suggest that as individuals age, they engage in more passive activities such as resting and watching television. Similarly, Vozikaki et al. (2017) found a decrease in activity and social commitment as individuals age, with older individuals displaying less social involvement. However, authors like Moraes and Souza (2005) did not find any correlation between age and the perception of aging. The findings of this research corroborate existing studies, indicating that older adults, especially those over 81 years of age, rely on the internet for health-related information. As individuals age, various factors contribute to decreased activity, social engagement, responsibility for household tasks, and ICT usage, while passive activities tend to increase. Additionally, while there is variation among studies, age does not consistently correlate with the perception of aging.

In terms of the role of aging facilities and their impact on the daily lives of older adults as active citizens, research indicates that the availability and quality of infrastructure and resources play a crucial role. Several studies support this notion, highlighting that the limitations of infrastructures and resources provided to the older adult population have significant implications (Blanding et al. 1993; Dapia Conde 2012; Siegenthaler 1996). Particularly in smaller municipalities, where resources are often scarce, residents are compelled to rely more heavily on the limited available resources and establish greater interactions with neighbors to alleviate the lack of activities and combat loneliness. Moreover, Sewo Sampaio and Ito (2013) conducted research in line with this perspective, noting that individuals in urban areas and those with higher levels of education tend to be more engaged in physical and artistic activities. They also tend to have a better quality of life compared to their counterparts in rural areas and with lower levels of education. These findings collectively support the idea that the availability of infrastructure and resources significantly influences the opportunities and quality of life for older adults. Adequate facilities and resources in urban areas, along with higher education levels, are associated with greater involvement in various activities and better overall well-being. Conversely, residents in rural areas and with lower education levels may face more challenges in accessing resources and opportunities for an active and fulfilling lifestyle.

Consistent with previous research, this study confirms that older adults residing in municipalities with a population size of 5,000 inhabitants or fewer are more likely to maintain strong connections with their descendants who live in other areas. Furthermore, there is a higher affiliation to citizen associations, particularly neighborhood associations, in smaller municipalities. As the size of the municipality and population increase, the level of affiliation to these associations tends to decrease. Additionally, the research highlights that card games and pétanque are more popular in the smallest municipalities, indicating a preference for these activities in such communities. Moreover, the use of centers for older adults is more prominent in smaller municipalities, suggesting a higher utilization of these facilities by older adults in those areas. However, the engagement in reading activities tends to decline in smaller municipalities. These findings support the notion that the size of the municipality plays a significant role in shaping the social dynamics and leisure activities of older adults. Smaller municipalities foster stronger intergenerational connections, higher involvement in citizen associations, and specific recreational preferences such as card games and pétanque. Meanwhile, the use of centers for older adults is more prevalent in smaller municipalities, possibly indicating a greater reliance on these resources for socialization and activities. However, reading activities may be relatively less common in such areas.

5 Conclusion

To conclude, the population of Castilla-La Mancha has undergone significant changes in recent years. These changes include increased educational attainment, decreased homeownership, declining rates of older adults, and migration of older adults from smaller municipalities to larger cities. These changes have been influenced by contextual factors and have led to the emergence of new profiles in the concept of aging. It is worth noting that gender is no longer a significant and decisive factor in the lifestyles of older adults. However, the gender variable continues to highlight greater economic vulnerability and domestic obligations that disproportionately affect women.

For its part, age is established as the variable with the greatest influence on lifestyles, leading to a general decrease in activities and social participation due to the decline in health and quality of life experienced by older adults. Similarly, people’s habitats or environmental surroundings also impact their lifestyles (Annear et al. 2014; Gao and Zhang 2022; Lak et al. 2020; Oswald et al. 2011). It is worth mentioning the lack of resources in smaller areas, which affects people’s behavior and leads them to compensate for this lack by increasing contact with neighbors and making greater use of the limited available resources. Therefore, one of the findings of this study, although not providing a complete explanation, is that the sex, age, and environments of older people influence their lifestyles. To further explore and comprehensively explain the complex phenomenon of aging, it would be necessary to conduct new studies incorporating additional variables and establishing correlations between them. In this regard, it is important to incorporate a gender perspective in research, as suggested by Fernández-Mayoralas et al. (2018). Another option is to refer to the framework developed by Fagerström et al. (2007), which identifies four factors that impact the quality of life for older adults.