Abstract
Autistic children from Spanish-speaking homes are part of a growing group of children at the intersection of multiple marginalized identities. Research suggests a “bilingual advantage” exists, similar to that experienced by neurotypical bilingual children, and autistic adults report positive social outcomes due to being bilingual. However, much less is known about providers' experiences who play a crucial role in whether families can maintain their heritage language(s) with their children. This exploratory qualitative study examined ethical challenges and needs of U.S.-based bilingual behavior analysts who provide home-based support for autistic children from Spanish-speaking homes. This study was informed by a demographic questionnaire and semi-structured interviews with participants (N = 14) across the United States. Participants' experiences were analyzed thematically. Findings included major themes and subthemes including challenging ethical experiences and behavior analysts’ needs to provide high quality services. Implications are presented across the organizational, provider, and research and higher education levels.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availbility
The data that support the findings of this study are not openly available due to reasons of sensitivity.
Notes
The term “behavior analyst” is used in this article and includes both board certified assistant behavior analysts (BCaBAs) as well as board certified behavior analysts (BCBAs).
The term “behavior technician” is used in this article to refer to the entry level position in ABA and includes registered behavior technicians.
Due to the limited use and awareness of terms such as "Latinx" or "Latine" within these communities (Pew Research Center, 2020), the terms "Latino or Hispanic" is used in this article to refer to individuals of unspecified Latin American origin, regardless of race or nationality, and is intended to be inclusive of all genders. It should be noted that all participants in the present study used the terms “Latino” or “Latina,” “Hispanic,” or a national identifier (e.g., Cuban or Salvadoran) when describing themselves. None of the participants used gender neutral variations such as “Latinx” or “Latine.”
Interpreters mediate languages orally (e.g., in vivo during a meeting) and translators work with written materials (e.g., translating a written document from English into Spanish).
References
Aguilar, J. M., Chan, J. M., White, P. J., & Fragale, C. (2017). Assessment of the language preferences of five children with autism from Spanish-speaking homes. Journal of Behavioral Education, 26(4), 334–347. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-017-9280-9
Amanti, C. (2019). The (invisible) work of dual language bilingual education teachers. Bilingual Research Journal, 42(4), 455–470. https://doi.org/10.1080/15235882.2019.1687111
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (n.d.). Bilingual service delivery practice portal. https://www.asha.org/practice-portal/professional-issues/bilingual-service-delivery/. Accessed 29 Sept 2023.
Amos, Y. T. (2018). Latina bilingual education teachers examining structural racism in schools. Routledge.
Annamma, S. A., Ferri, B. A., & Connor, D. J. (2018). Disability critical race theory: Exploring the intersectional lineage, emergence, and potential futures of DisCrit in education. Review of Research in Education, 42(1), 46–71. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X18759041
Baires, N. A., Cañón, L. F., García-Zambrano, S., Guerrero-Wickham, P., & Castro-Hostetler, M. (2023). A contextual behavioral framework for enhancing cultural responsiveness in behavioral service delivery for Latino families. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 16, 938–962. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-023-00788-y
Behavior Analyst Certification Board. (n.d.). BACB certificant data. https://www.bacb.com/bacb-certificant-data/. Accessed 4 Jan 2024.
Behavior Analyst Certification Board. (2020) Ethics code for behavior analysts. https://www.bacb.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/Ethics-Code-for-Behavior-Analysts-210902.pdf
Brantlinger, E., Jimenez, R., Klingner, J., Pugach, M., & Richardson, V. (2005). Qualitative studies in special education. Exceptional Children, 71(2), 195–207. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290507100205
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Brodhead, M. T., Durán, L., & Bloom, S. E. (2014). Cultural and linguistic diversity in recent verbal behavior research on individuals with disabilities: A review and implications for research and practice. Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 30(1), 75–86. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40616-014-0009-8
Catrone, R. G., Baires, N. A., Martin Loya, M. R., & Brown-Hollie, J. P. (2023). An intersectional examination of disability and race models in behavior-analytic practice. Behavior & Social Issues, 32, 152–181. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42822-022-00116-z
Conner, C., Baker, D. L., & Allor, J. H. (2020). Multiple language exposure for children with autism spectrum disorder from culturally and linguistically diverse communities. Bilingual Research Journal, 43(3), 286–303. https://doi.org/10.1080/15235882.2020.1799885
Council of Autism Service Providers. (2020). Applied behavior analysis treatment of autism spectrum disorder: Practice guidelines for healthcare funders and managers (2nd edn.). https://casproviders.org/asd-guidelines/
Davis, R., Hampton, S. C., & Fletcher-Watson, S. (2022). Why study bilingualism in autistic people? Autism, 26(7), 1601–1605. https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613221126115
Dedoose. (2022). Version 9.2.004, cloud application for managing, analyzing, and presenting qualitative and mixed method research data. Los Angeles, CA: SocioCultural Research Consultants, LLC. https://www.dedoose.com
Dennison, A., Lund, E. M., Brodhead, M. T., Mejia, L., Armenta, A., & Leal, J. (2019). Delivering home-supported applied behavior analysis therapies to culturally and linguistically diverse families. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 12(4), 887–898. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-019-00374-1
Diaz-LePage, A., Lauer, M., Santa-Sosa, E., Abdul-Chani, M., Garcia, A., Hoet, A., Senior, C., Carroll, I., Hatchimonji, D., & Marchante-Hoffman, A. (2023). En sus propias palabras (in their own words): Reflections of Spanish-English bilingual psychologists and trainees in the United States. Training & Education in Professional Psychology, 18(1), 78–86. https://doi.org/10.1037/tep0000455
Digard, B. G., Sorace, A., Stanfield, A., & Fletcher-Watson, S. (2020). Bilingualism in autism: Language learning profiles and social experiences. Autism, 24(8), 2166–2177. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361320937845
Digard, B. G., Davis, R., Stanfield, A., Sorace, A., & Fletcher-Watson, S. (2022). “The languages that you know draw the boundary of your world”: A thematic analysis of the experiences of autistic bilingual adults living in the United Kingdom. Autism in Adulthood, 4(4), 328–339. https://doi.org/10.1089/aut.2021.0077
Durán, L., Cycyk, L. M., & Batz, R. (2022). Voces de la gente: Spanish-Speaking families’ perspectives on early childhood special education. Journal of Early Intervention, 45(3), 285–305. https://doi.org/10.1177/10538151221131514
Federal Register. (2023). Applications for new awards: Personnel development to improve services and results for children with disabilities-preparation of special education, early intervention, and related services leadership personnel. U.S Department of Education. Retrieved September 29, 2023, https://www.federalregister.gov/d/2023-09688
Gilhuber, C. S., Raulston, T. J., & Galley, K. (2023). Language and communication skills in multilingual children on the autism spectrum: A systematic review. Autism, 27(6), 1516–1531. https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613221147780
Graber, A., & Graber, J. (2023). Applied behavior analysis and the abolitionist neurodiversity critique: An ethical analysis. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 16, 921–937. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-023-00780-6
Hay, I., Tsourtos, G., & Bickford, J. (2021). A qualitative inquiry of professionals’ perceptions of bilingualism for children with language delay. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 23(5), 497–507. https://doi.org/10.1080/17549507.2020.1869306
Howard, K., Gibson, J., & Katsos, N. (2020). Parental perceptions and decisions regarding maintaining bilingualism in autism. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 51(1), 179–192. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04528-x
Howard, K., Katsos, N., & Gibson, J. (2021). Practitioners’ perspectives and experiences of supporting bilingual pupils on the autism spectrum in two linguistically different educational settings. British Educational Research Journal, 47(2), 427–449. https://doi.org/10.1002/berj.3662
Jones, S. H., Peter, C. C., & Ruckle, M. M. (2020). Reporting of demographic variables in the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 53(3), 1304–1315. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.722
Kelleher, A. (2010). What is a heritage language? (Heritage Briefs). Center for Applied Linguistics. Retrieved September 29, 2023, https://www.cal.org/heritage/pdfs/briefs/What-is-a-Heritage-Language.pdf
Kornack, J., Cernius, A., & Persicke, A. (2019). The diversity is in the details: Unintentional language discrimination in the practice of Applied Behavior Analysis. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 12(4), 879–886. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-019-00377-y
Kroll, J. F., & Dussias, P. E. (2017). The benefits of multilingualism to the personal and professional development of residents of the US. Foreign Language Annals, 50(2), 248–259. https://doi.org/10.1111/flan.12271
Lang, R., Rispoli, M., Sigafoos, J., Lancioni, G., Andrews, A., & Ortega, L. (2011). Effects of language of instruction on response accuracy and challenging behavior in a child with autism. Journal of Behavioral Education, 20(4), 252–259. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-011-9130-0
LeBlanc, L. A., Sellers, T. P., & Ala’i, S. (2020). Interpersonal and therapeutic relationship skills. In L. A. LeBlanc, T. P. Sellers, & S. Ala’i (Eds.), Building and sustaining meaningful and effective relationships as a supervisor and mentor. UK: Sloan.
Li, A., Wallace, L., Ehrhardt, K. E., & Poling, A. (2017). Reporting participant characteristics in intervention articles published in five behavior-analytic journals, 2013–2015. Behavior Analysis: Research & Practice, 17(1), 84–91. https://doi.org/10.1037/bar0000071
Lim, N., & Charlop, M. H. (2018). Effects of English versus heritage language on play in bilingually exposed children with autism spectrum disorder. Behavioral Interventions, 33(4), 339–351. https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.1644
Lim, N., O’Reilly, M., Sigafoos, J., Lancioni, G. E., & Sanchez, N. J. (2021). A review of barriers experienced by immigrant parents of children with autism when accessing services. Review Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 8(3), 366–372. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40489-020-00216-9
Love, H. R., & Beneke, M. R. (2021). Pursuing justice-driven inclusive education research: Disability critical race theory (DisCrit) in early childhood. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 41(1), 31–44. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121421990833
Meek, S., Smith, L., Allen, R., Catherine, E., Edyburn, K., Williams, C., Fabes, R., McIntosh, K., Garcia, E., Takanishi, R., Gordon, L., Jimenez-Castellanos, O., Hemmeter, M. L., Gilliam, W., & Pontier, R. (2020). Start with equity: From the early years to the early grades. The Children’s Equity Project. https://childandfamilysuccess.asu.edu/cep
Montgomery, L., Chondrogianni, V., Fletcher-Watson, S., Rabagliati, H., Sorace, A., & Davis, R. (2022). Measuring the impact of bilingualism on executive functioning via inhibitory control abilities in autistic children. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 52(8), 3560–3573. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-021-05234-y
Nolte, K., Fletcher-Watson, S., Sorace, A., Stanfield, A., & Digard, B. G. (2021). Perspectives and experiences of autistic multilingual adults: A qualitative analysis. Autism in adulthood: Challenges & management, 3(4), 310–319. https://doi.org/10.1089/aut.2020.0067
Papoudi, D., Jørgensen, C. R., Guldberg, K., & Meadan, H. (2021). Perceptions, experiences, and needs of parents of culturally and linguistically diverse children with autism: A scoping review. Review Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 8(2), 195–212. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40489-020-00210-1
Pew Research Center. (2020). About one-in-four U.S. Hispanics have heard of Latinx, but just 3% use it. https://www.pewresearch.org/hispanic/wp-content/uploads/sites/5/2020/08/PHGMD_2020.08.11_Latinx_FINAL.pdf
Pope, A. L., Sunal, Z., Gantt, A. C., Zimmerman, B., Corey, A. K., Nuosce, M., & Araujo, L. (2022). A qualitative examination of bi/multilingual counselor training and experiences. Journal of Counseling & Development, 100(1), 27–38. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcad.12407
Pritchett, M., Ala’i-Rosales, S., Cruz, A. R., & Cihon, T. M. (2022). Social justice is the spirit and aim of an applied science of human behavior: Moving from colonial to participatory research practices. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 15, 1074–1092. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-021-00591-7
QR Collective. (2023). Reflexive quality criteria: Questions and indicators for purpose-driven special education qualitative research. Exceptional Children, 89(4), 449–466. https://doi.org/10.1177/00144029231168106
Ratto, A. B., Reimann, G., & Nadwodny, N. (2022). Dual language learning predicts improved executive functioning in youth with autism. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 52(11), 5007–5017. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-021-05356-3
Rosales, R., León, I. A., & León-Fuentes, A. L. (2023). Recommendations for recruitment and retention of a diverse workforce: A report from the field. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 16, 346–361. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-022-00747-z
Saldaña, J. (2021). The coding manual for qualitative researchers (4th ed.). Sage.
Schuck, R. K., Tagavi, D. M., Baiden, K. M. P., Dwyer, P., Williams, Z. J., Osuna, A., Ferguson, E. F., Jimenez Muñoz, M., Poyser, S. K., Johnson, J. F., & Vernon, T. W. (2022). Neurodiversity and autism intervention: Reconciling perspectives through a naturalistic developmental behavioral intervention framework. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 52(10), 4625–4645. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-021-05316-x
Sher, D. A., Gibson, J. L., & Browne, W. V. (2022). It’s like stealing what should be theirs. An exploration of the experiences and perspectives of parents and educational practitioners on Hebrew-English bilingualism for Jewish autistic children. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 52(10), 4440–4473. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-021-05314-z
Siyambalapitiya, S., Paynter, J., Nair, V. K. K., Reuterskiöld, C., Tucker, M., & Trembath, D. (2022). Longitudinal social and communication outcomes in children with autism raised in bi/multilingual environments. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 52(1), 339–348. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-021-04940-x
Slowiak, J. M., & DeLongchamp, A. C. (2022). Self-care strategies and job-crafting practices among behavior analysts: Do they predict perceptions of work–life balance, work engagement, and burnout? Behavior Analysis in Practice, 15(2), 414–432. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-021-00570-y
Slowiak, J. M., & Jay, G. M. (2023). Burnout among behavior analysts in times of crisis: The roles of work demands, professional social support, and psychological flexibility. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 105(May), 102185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2023.102185
Soto-Boykin, X. T., Larson, A. L., Olszewski, A., Velury, V., & Feldberg, A. (2021). Who is centered? A systematic review of early childhood researchers’ descriptions of children and caregivers from linguistically minoritized communities. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 41(1), 18–30. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121421991222
Soto-Boykin, X., Brea-Spahn, M. R., Perez, S., & McKenna, M. (2023). A critical analysis of state-level policies impacting racialized emergent bilinguals suspected or labeled as dis/abled. Language, Speech, & Hearing Services in Schools, 54(3), 729–745. https://doi.org/10.1044/2023_LSHSS-22-00137
Trelles, M. P., & Castro, K. (2019). Bilingualism in Autism Spectrum Disorder: Finding meaning in translation. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 58(11), 1035–1037. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2019.05.027
U.S. Census Bureau. (n.d.). American community survey demographic and housing estimates. Retrieved June 13, 2023, https://data.census.gov/cedsci/profile?g=0100000US
Vaquero, J., & Williams, M. E. (2018). Experiences of Spanish-English bilingual early childhood psychotherapists providing services to bilingual caregiver-child dyads: An exploratory qualitative study. Journal of Latina/o Psychology, 7(3), 195–211. https://doi.org/10.1037/lat0000115
Verdinelli, S., & Biever, J. L. (2009). Experiences of Spanish/English bilingual supervisees. Psychotherapy, 46(2), 158–170. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016024
Vespa, J., Medina, L., & Armstrong, D. M. (2020). Demographic turning points for the United States: Population projections for 2020 to 2060. Current Population Reports (pp. 25-1144). Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau.
Wang, Y., Kang, S., Ramirez, J., & Tarbox, J. (2019). Multilingual diversity in the field of applied behavior analysis and autism: A brief review and discussion of future directions. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 12(4), 795–804. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-019-00382-1
Ware, A. T., Kirkovski, M., & Lum, J. A. G. (2020). Meta-analysis reveals a bilingual advantage that is dependent on task and age. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1458. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01458
Zhou, V., Munson, J. A., Greenson, J., Hou, Y., Rogers, S., & Estes, A. M. (2019). An exploratory longitudinal study of social and language outcomes in children with autism in bilingual home environments. Autism, 23(2), 394–404. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361317743251
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Christy Yoon for her assistance with data analysis.
Funding
This study was supported in part by funding from the Office of Special Education Programs, U.S. Department of Education, Project Co-LEAD (H325D190064). The views or opinions presented in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of the funding agency.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
The first author contributed to the study conception, design, material preparation, data collection, data analysis, and writing the initial draft. The second author contributed to the study conception, design, data analysis, and editing. All authors approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Consent to Participate
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Disclosure of Potential Conflicts of Interest
All authors are Board Certified Behavior Analysts who stand to gain from favorable public perception of ABA. The authors certify that they have no current affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in this article.
Ethics Approval
The Institutional Review Board approved the methods and procedures of this project.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
• Bilingual behavior analysts reported ethical challenges when providing heritage language care.
• Lack of translated resources and bilingual personnel were reported as significant barriers.
• Leaders are recommended to invest in bilingual resources and structural support to prevent employee burnout.
• Bilingual providers are recommended to seek supportive communities of practice.
• Monolingual providers are recommended to engage in self-learning and reflection to contribute to more equitable work environments.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Martin Loya, M.R., Meadan, H. I’m One Person, I Can’t Be Everywhere: Challenges and Needs of Bilingual Behavior Analysts. Behav Analysis Practice (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-024-00916-2
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-024-00916-2