Abstract
Applied behavior analysis (ABA) organizations that provide services to children with autism can apply contingencies to improve employee performance or behavioral processes. Such contingencies may be especially important for maximizing ABA service delivery quality (ASDQ). For some behavioral processes, group contingencies applied to the behavior of individuals within the process may be more appropriate than individualized contingencies. In the history of the profession, behavior analysts have used group contingencies at the operant level of selection, such as independent, interdependent, and dependent group contingencies. However, recent experimental work in culturo-behavioral science suggests the metacontingency, an analogue of the operant contingency at the cultural level of selection, can also control the behavior of individuals in a group. This article discusses how such group-oriented contingencies could be used by managers in organizations in behavioral process improvement efforts to target key performance indicators of quality in an ASDQ framework. The paper ends with a discussion of limitations and future research.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
None to report.
Notes
Although it is possible to implement MC with restrictions on IBC, too.
References
Albuquerque, A. R., Houmanfar, R. A., Freitas-Lemos, R., & Vasconcelos, L. A. (2021). Behavior analysis of culture in Brazilian psychology graduate programs: A literature review. Behavior & Social Issues, 30, 361–382. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42822-021-00056-0
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596
Azrin, N. H., & Lindsley, O. R. (1956). The reinforcement of cooperation between children. Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology, 52, 100–102.
Baia, F. H., & Sampaio, A. A. S. (2019). Distinguishing between units of analysis, procedures, and processes in cultural selection: Notes on metacontingency terminology. Behavior & Social Issues, 28, 204–220. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42822-019-00017-8
Barrish, H., Saunders, M., & Wolf, M. (1969). Good behavior game: Effects of individual contingencies for group consequences on disruptive behavior in a classroom 1. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 2, 119–124. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1969.2-119
Behavior Analyst Certification Board. (2021). U.S. Employment Demand for Behavior Analysts: 2010–2020. https://www.bacb.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/BurningGlass2021_210126.pdf
Behavioral Health Center of Excellence. (2021a, September 19). Selecting appropriate assessment instruments to measure treatment outcomes for individuals with autism spectrum disorder. https://bhcoe.org/project/bhcoe-aba-outcomes-framework/
Behavioral Health Center of Excellence. (2021b, October 19). BHCOE introduces standards for practica training of behavior analysts. https://www.bhcoe.org/2021/10/bhcoe-introduces-standards-for-practica-training-of-behavior-analysts/
Behavioral Health Center of Excellence. (2022a, April 14). Evernorth and Behavioral Health Center of Excellence collaborate to measure health outcomes for autism treatment. https://www.bhcoe.org/2022/04/bhcoe-evernorth-partnership/
Behavioral Health Center of Excellence. (2022b, May 10). Behavioral Health Center of Excellence and Centene announce partnership to advance quality in autism treatment outcomes. https://www.bhcoe.org/2022/05/bhcoe-centene-partnership/
Behavioral Health Center of Excellence. (2022c, retrieved May 20). BHCOE accreditation standards. https://bhcoe.org/standards/
Bowman-Perrott, L., Burke, M. D., Zaini, S., Zhang, N., & Vannest, K. (2016). Promoting positive behavior using the good behavior game: A meta-analysis of single-case research. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 18, 180–190.
Brethower, D. M. (1982). The total performance system. In R. O’Brien, A. Dickinson, & M. Rosow (Eds.), Industrial behavior modification: A management handbook (pp. 350–369). Pergamon.
Brodhead, M. T., Cox, D. J., & Quigley, S. P. (2018). Practical ethics for effective treatment of autism spectrum disorder. Elsevier.
Cariveau, T., Muething, C. S., & Trapp, W. (2020). Interpersonal and group contingencies. Perspectives on Behavior Science, 43, 115–135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40614-020-00245-z
Carvalho, L. C., Couto, K. C., Gois, N. S., Sandaker, I., & Todorov, J. C. (2017). Evaluating effects of cultural consequences on the variability of interlocking behavioral contingencies and their aggregate products. European Journal of Behavior Analysis, 18(1), 84–98.
Cihon, T. M., Borba, A., Lopez, C. R., Kazaoka, K., & de Carvalho, L. C. (2020). Experimental analysis in culturo-behavioral science: The search for basic processes. In T. M. Cihon & M. A. Mattaini (Eds.), Behavior analysis: Theory, research, and practice. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45421-0_6
Cooper, J., Heron, T., & Heward, W. (2020). Applied behavior analysis (3rd ed.). Pearson.
Council of Autism Service Providers. (2022a, January 31). The Council of Autism Service Providers (CASP) issues organizational guidelines. https://casproviders.org/caspissuesorganizationalguidelines/
Council of Autism Service Providers. (2022b, May 2). Council of Autism Service Providers announces formation of the Autism Commission on Quality. https://casproviders.org/press-releases-casp-acq-formation/
Council of Autism Service Providers. (2022c, May 16). CASP publishes applied behavior analysis telehealth parameters best practices document. https://casproviders.org/casp-publishes-applied-behavior-analysis-telehealth-parameters-best-practices-document/
Cox, D. (2020). A guide to establishing ethics committees in behavioral health settings. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 13, 939–949. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-020-00455-6
Daniels, A. C., & Bailey, J. S. (2014). Performance management: Changing behavior that drives organizational effectiveness. Aubrey Daniels International.
Deming Cycle (PDCA). (2000). In P. M. Swamidass (Ed.), Encyclopedia of production and manufacturing management. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-0612-8_229
Diener, L. H., McGee, H. M., & Miguel, C. F. (2009). An integrated approach for conducting a behavioral systems analysis. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 29, 108–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/01608060902874534
Fryling, M., Hayes, L. J., & Fleming, W. (2022). Interbehavioral psychology and organizational behavior management. In R. A. Houmanfar, M. Fryling, & M. P. Alavosius (Eds.), Applied behavior science in organizations: Consilience of historical and emerging trends in organizational behavior management. Routledge.
Gilbert, T. F. (1978). Human competence: Engineering worthy performance. McGraw-Hill.
Glenn, S. (1986). Metacontingencies in Walden two. Behavior Analysis & Social Action, 5, 2–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03406059
Glenn, S. S. (2004). Individual behavior, culture, and social change. The Behavior Analyst, 27, 133–151. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03393175
Glenn, S. S., Malott, M. E., Andery, M. A. P. A., Benvenuti, M., Houmanfar, R. A., Sandaker, I., Todorov, J. C., Tourinho, E. Z., & Vasconcelos, L. A. (2016). Toward consistent terminology in a behaviorist approach to cultural analysis. Behavior & Social Issues, 25, 11–27. https://doi.org/10.5210/bsi.v25i0.6634
Hayes, L. A. (1976). The use of group contingencies for behavioral control: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 83, 628–648. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.83.4.628
Health Net Federal Services. (2021, November 24). Autism care demonstration: Outcome measures. https://www.tricare-west.com/content/hnfs/home/tw/prov/autism-care-demonstration/outcome_measures.html. Obtained 9/19/21
Heering, P., & Wilder, D. (2006). The use of dependent group contingencies to increase on-task behavior in two general education classrooms. Education & Treatment of Children, 29(459–465), 467–468 http://search.proquest.com/docview/202666116/
Hunter, C. S. (2012). Analyzing behavioral and cultural selection contingencies. Revista Latinoamericana de Psicologia, 44(1), 43–54.
International Consortium for Health Outcomes Measurement. (2021, November 24). Autism spectrum disorder standard set. https://connect.ichom.org/standard-sets/autism-spectrum-disorder/
Johnston, J. M., & Pennypacker, H. S. (1993). Strategies and tactics of behavioral research (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Langh, U., Perry, A., Eikeseth, S., & Bolte, S. (2021). Quality of early intensive behavioral intervention as a predictor of children’s outcomes. Behavior Modification, 45(6), 911–928. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445520923998
Langh, U., Cauvet, E., Perry, A., Eiteseth, S., & Bolte, S. (2022). Enriched supervision to increase quality of early intensive behavioral intervention in autism: A pragmatic randomized controlled pilot study. European Journal of Behavior Analysis, 23(1), 62–77. https://doi.org/10.1080/15021149.2021.1946371
Leaf, J. B., Cihon, J. H., Leaf, R., & McEachin, J. (2016). A progressive approach to discrete trial teaching: Some current guidelines. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 9(2), 361–372 https://www.iejee.com/index.php/IEJEE/article/view/163
LeBlanc, L. A., Onofrio, O. M., Valentino, A. L., & Sleeper, J. D. (2020). Promoting ethical discussions and decision making in a human service agency. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 13, 905–913. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-020-00454-7
Lindsley, O. R. (1991). From technical jargon to plain English for application. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24(3), 449–458 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1279596/
Litoe, L., & Pumroy, D. K. (1975). A brief review of classroom group-oriented contingencies. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 8, 341–347. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1975.8-341
Maggin, D. M., Johnson, A. H., Chafouleas, S. M., Ruberto, L., & M., & Berggren, M. (2012). A systematic evidence review of school-based group contingency interventions for students with challenging behavior. Journal of School Psychology, 50, 625–654.
Malott, R. W. (1974). A behavioral systems approach to the design of human services. In D. Harshbarger & R. F. Maley (Eds.), Behavior analysis and systems analysts: An integrative approach to mental health programs. Behaviordelia.
Malott, M. E. (2022). Paradox of organizational change: A selectionist approach to improving complex systems. In R. A. Houmanfar, M. Fryling, & M. P. Alavosius (Eds.), Applied behavior science in organizations: Consilience of historical and emerging trends in organizational behavior management. Routledge.
Malott, R. W., & Garcia, M. E. (1987). A goal-directed model for the design of human performance systems. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 9, 125–129.
Malott, M. E., & Glenn, S. S. (2006). Targets of intervention in cultural and behavioral change. Behavior & Social Issues, 15, 31–56. https://doi.org/10.5210/bsi.v15i1.344
Meredith, S. E., & Dallery, J. (2013). Investigating group contingencies to promote brief abstinence from cigarette smoking. Experimental & Clinical Psychopharmacology, 21, 144–154.
Michael, J. (1982). Distinguishing between discriminative and motivational functions of stimuli. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 37(1), 149–155. https://doi.org/10.1901/jeab.1982.37-149
Miguel, C. F. (2013). Jack Michael’s motivation. Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 29, 3–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03393119
Moen, R. D., & Norman, C. L. (2010). Circling back: Clearing up myths about the Deming cycle and seeing how it keeps evolving. Quality Progress, 43(11), 22–28 https://asq.org/quality-progress/articles/circling-back?id=5e4d20950fad4b519133490466ccbf0a
Page, S. V., Zimmerman, D. M., & Pinkelman, S. E. (2021). A systematic review of dependent group contingencies (1970–2019). Journal of Positive Behavioral Interventions. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/10983007211054519
Parmenter, D. (2015). Key performance indicators: Developing, implementing, and using Winning KPIs (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
Perry, A., Koudys, J., & Sheese, K. (2008). The York system of quality assurance for intensive behavioural intervention programs (YSQA). Unpublished Manual, York University.
Porter, M. E., & Teisberg, E. O. (2006). Redefining health care: Creating value-based competition on results. Harvard Business School Press.
Scheffler, R. M., Alexander, L. M., & Godwin, J. R. (2021, May 18). Soaring private equity investment in the healthcare sector: Consolidation accelerated, competition undermined, and patients at risk. https://publichealth.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/AAI-Petris-Private-Equity-Healthcare-Report.pdf
Sigurdsson, S. O., & McGee, H. M. (2015). Organizational behavior management: Systems analysis. In H. S. Roane, J. L. Ringdahl, & T. S. Falcomata (Eds.), Clinical and organizational applications of applied behavior analysis. Elsevier.
Silbaugh, B. C., & El Fattal, R. (2021). Exploring quality in the applied behavior analysis service delivery industry. Behavior Analysis and Practice, 15, 571–590. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-021-00627-y
Slocum, T. A., Detrich, R., Wilczynski, M., Spencer, T. D., Lewis, T., & Wolfe, K. (2014). The evidence-based practice of applied behavior analysis. Behavior Analyst, 37, 41–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40614-014-005-2
Sloman, K. N., Reyes, J. R., & Vollmer, T. R. (2014). Effects of an independent group contingency special activity program on inappropriate behavior in a residential setting. Behavioral Interventions, 29(3), 186–199. https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.1383
Tagliabue, M. (2022). Tutorial. A behavioral analysis of rationality, nudging, and boosting: Implications for policy making. Perspectives on Behavior Science. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40614-021-00324-9
Verified Market Research. (2021, September 19). Global autism spectrum disorders market size by type (Autistic disorder, Asperger syndrome, PDD-NOS, and other pervasive developmental disorders), treatment approach (behavioral approaches, early intervention, medication), by geographic scope and forecast. https://www.verifiedmarketresearch.com/product/autism-spectrum-disorders-market/
Vichi, C., Andery, M. A. P., & Glenn, S. S. (2009). A metacontingency experiment: The effect of contingent consequences on patterns of interlocking contingencies of reinforcement. Behavior & Social Issues, 18, 41–57. https://doi.org/10.5210/bsi.v18i1.2292
Zilio, D. (2019). On the function of science: an overview of 30 years of publications on metacontingency. Behavior & Social Issues, 28, 46–76.
Acknowledgments
I thank Sarah Liberty, Aecio Borba, Robbie Fattal, Traci Cihon, Sigrid Glenn, and Scott Page for their helpful comments on previous versions of this manuscript.
Code Availability
Not applicable.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Informed Consent
Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest
None to report. No businesses have provided monetary support, and the authors are not affiliated with the organizations identified in this paper.
Ethics Approval
Not applicable.
Consent to Participate
Not applicable.
Consent for Publication
The author consents to publication of the current manuscript.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Silbaugh, B.C. Discussion and Conceptual Analysis of Four Group Contingencies for Behavioral Process Improvement in an ABA Service Delivery Quality Framework. Behav Analysis Practice 16, 421–436 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-022-00750-4
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-022-00750-4