Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Early Life Disadvantage and the Risk of Depressive Symptoms among Young Black Women

  • Published:
Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Overview

We examined the association between early-life socioeconomic disadvantage and depressive symptoms in adulthood and assessed whether social factors in adulthood modify the association.

Methods

The 11-item Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Scale (CES-D) assessed adult depressive symptoms among 1612 Black women and other participants with a uterus (hereafter participants) in the Study of Environment, Lifestyle and Fibroids. Baseline self-reported childhood factors (i.e., parents in the household, mother’s educational attainment, food insecurity, neighborhood safety, childhood income, and quiet bedroom for sleep) were included in a latent class analysis to derive an early life disadvantage construct. Multivariable log-binomial models estimated the association between early life disadvantage and adult depressive symptoms. Potential effect modifiers included adult educational attainment, social support, and financial difficulty.

Results

Participants classified as having high early life disadvantage had 1.34 times (95% CI: 1.20, 1.49) the risk of high depressive symptoms than those in the low early life disadvantage class after adjusting for age, first born status, and childhood health. Adult educational attainment and social support modified the association.

Conclusion

Early life disadvantage increased the risk of depressive symptoms in adulthood. Participants with at least some college education and with high social support had greater risk than those with less than college education and low social support, respectively. Thus, the mental health of Black women and other participants with a uterus exposed to early life disadvantage do not necessarily benefit from higher education or from social support.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Data Availability

Access to the data used in this study may be available upon request.

References

  1. Agahi N, Shaw BA, Fors S. Social and economic conditions in childhood and the progression of functional health problems from midlife into old age. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2014;68:734–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Boylan JM, Cundiff JM, Jakubowski KP, Pardini DA, Matthews KA. Pathways Linking Childhood SES and Adult Health Behaviors and Psychological Resources in Black and White Men. Ann Behav Med Publ Soc Behav Med. 2018;52:1023–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Fors S, Lennartsson C, Lundberg O. Childhood Living Conditions, Socioeconomic Position in Adulthood, and Cognition in Later Life: Exploring the Associations. J Gerontol Ser B. 2009;64B:750–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Galobardes B, Smith GD, Lynch JW. Systematic Review of the Influence of Childhood Socioeconomic Circumstances on Risk for Cardiovascular Disease in Adulthood. Ann Epidemiol. 2006;16:91–104.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Kelly-Irving M, Lepage B, Dedieu D, Bartley M, Blane D, Grosclaude P, et al. Adverse childhood experiences and premature all-cause mortality. Eur J Epidemiol. 2013;28:721–34.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  6. Kendig H, Loh V, O’Loughlin K, Byles J, Nazroo JY. Pathways to Well-Being in Later Life: Socioeconomic and Health Determinants Across the Life Course of Australian Baby Boomers. J Popul Ageing. 2016;9:49–67.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Puolakka E, Pahkala K, Laitinen TT, Magnussen CG, Hutri-Kähönen N, Männistö S, et al. Childhood socioeconomic status and lifetime health behaviors: The Young Finns Study. Int J Cardiol. 2018;258:289–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Smith JP, Shen Y, Strauss J, Zhe Y, Zhao Y. The Effects of Childhood Health on Adult Health and SES in China. Econ Dev Cult Change. 2012;61:127–56.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  9. Wade R, Cronholm PF, Fein JA, Forke CM, Davis MB, Harkins-Schwarz M, et al. Household and community-level Adverse Childhood Experiences and adult health outcomes in a diverse urban population. Child Abuse Negl. 2016;52:135–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Braveman P, Barclay C. Health disparities beginning in childhood: a life-course perspective. Pediatrics. 2009;124(Suppl 3):S163-175.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Angelini V, Howdon DDH, Mierau JO. Childhood Socioeconomic Status and Late-Adulthood Mental Health: Results From the Survey on Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci. 2019;74:95–104.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Laaksonen E, Martikainen P, Lahelma E, Lallukka T, Rahkonen O, Head J, et al. Socioeconomic circumstances and common mental disorders among Finnish and British public sector employees: evidence from the Helsinki Health Study and the Whitehall II Study. Int J Epidemiol. 2007;36:776–86.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. McLaughlin KA, Breslau J, Green JG, Lakoma MD, Sampson NA, Zaslavsky AM, et al. Childhood socio-economic status and the onset, persistence, and severity of DSM-IV mental disorders in a US national sample. Soc Sci Med. 2011;73:1088–96.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  14. McLaughlin KA, Conron KJ, Koenen KC, Gilman SE. Childhood adversity, adult stressful life events, and risk of past-year psychiatric disorder: a test of the stress sensitization hypothesis in a population-based sample of adults. Psychol Med. 2010;40:1647–58.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Bromberger JT, Schott LL, Matthews KA, Kravitz HM, Harlow SD, Montez JK. Childhood socioeconomic circumstances and depressive symptom burden across 15 years of follow-up during midlife: Study of Women’s Health Across the Nation (SWAN). Arch Womens Ment Health. 2017;20:495–504.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  16. Elovainio M, Vahtera J, Pentti J, Hakulinen C, Pulkki-Råback L, Lipsanen J, et al. The Contribution of Neighborhood Socioeconomic Disadvantage to Depressive Symptoms Over the Course of Adult Life: A 32-Year Prospective Cohort Study. Am J Epidemiol. 2020;189:679–89.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  17. Gilman SE, Kawachi I, Fitzmaurice GM, Buka SL. Socioeconomic status in childhood and the lifetime risk of major depression. Int J Epidemiol. 2002;31:359–67.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Joinson C, Kounali D, Lewis G. Family socioeconomic position in early life and onset of depressive symptoms and depression: a prospective cohort study. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2017;52:95–103.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Ochi M, Fujiwara T, Mizuki R, Kawakami N. Association of socioeconomic status in childhood with major depression and generalized anxiety disorder: results from the World Mental Health Japan survey 2002–2006. BMC Public Health. 2014;14:1–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Danese A, Moffitt TE, Harrington H, Milne BJ, Polanczyk G, Pariante CM, et al. Adverse Childhood Experiences and Adult Risk Factors for Age-Related Disease: Depression, Inflammation, and Clustering of Metabolic Risk Markers. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med [Internet]. 2009 [cited 2021 Jul 31];163. Available from: http://archpedi.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/archpediatrics.2009.214

  21. McLaughlin KA, Greif Green J, Gruber MJ, Sampson NA, Zaslavsky AM, Kessler RC. Childhood Adversities and First Onset of Psychiatric Disorders in a National Sample of US Adolescents. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2012;69:1151.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  22. Cohen S, Janicki-Deverts D, Chen E, Matthews KA. Childhood socioeconomic status and adult health. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2010;1186:37–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Ben-Shlomo Y, Kuh D. A life course approach to chronic disease epidemiology: conceptual models, empirical challenges and interdisciplinary perspectives. Int J Epidemiol. 2002;31:285–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Lindström M, Fridh M, Rosvall M. Economic stress in childhood and adulthood, and poor psychological health: Three life course hypotheses. Psychiatry Res. 2014;215:386–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Morrissey K, Kinderman P. The impact of childhood socioeconomic status on depression and anxiety in adult life: Testing the accumulation, critical period and social mobility hypotheses. SSM - Popul Health. 2020;11:100576.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. McKenzie SK, Carter KN, Blakely T, Ivory V. Effects of childhood socioeconomic position on subjective health and health behaviours in adulthood: how much is mediated by adult socioeconomic position? BMC Public Health. 2011;11:269.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  27. Pakpahan E, Hoffmann R, Kröger H. The long arm of childhood circumstances on health in old age: Evidence from SHARELIFE. Adv Life Course Res. 2017;31:1–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Nettle D, Bateson M. Childhood and adult socioeconomic position interact to predict health in mid life in a cohort of British women. PeerJ. 2017;5:e3528.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  29. Tubeuf S, Jusot F, Bricard D. Mediating Role of Education and Lifestyles in the Relationship Between Early-Life Conditions and Health: Evidence from the 1958 British Cohort. Health Econ. 2012;21:129–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Wood N, Bann D, Hardy R, Gale C, Goodman A, Crawford C, et al. Childhood socioeconomic position and adult mental wellbeing: Evidence from four British birth cohort studies. PLoS One. 2017;12:e0185798.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  31. Link BG, Phelan J. Social Conditions As Fundamental Causes of Disease. J Health Soc Behav. 1995;80–94.

  32. Phelan JC, Link BG. Is Racism a Fundamental Cause of Inequalities in Health? Annu Rev Sociol. 2015;41:311–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Haider A. The Basic Facts About Children in Poverty [Internet]. Cent. Am. Prog. 2021 [cited 2021 Sep 1]. Available from: https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/poverty/reports/2021/01/12/494506/basic-facts-children-poverty/.

  34. Farmer MM, Ferraro KF. Are racial disparities in health conditional on socioeconomic status? Soc Sci Med. 2005;60:191–204.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Nuru-Jeter AM, Michaels EK, Thomas MD, Reeves AN, Thorpe RJ, LaVeist TA. Relative Roles of Race Versus Socioeconomic Position in Studies of Health Inequalities: A Matter of Interpretation. Annu Rev Public Health. 2018;39:169–88.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  36. Turner RJ, Brown TN, Hale WB. Race, Socioeconomic Position, and Physical Health: A Descriptive Analysis. J Health Soc Behav. 2017;58:23–36.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Sims J, Coley RL. Variations in links between educational success and health: Implications for enduring health disparities. Cultur Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol. 2019;25:32–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Assari S, Mistry R. Educational Attainment and Smoking Status in a National Sample of American Adults; Evidence for the Blacks’ Diminished Return. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2018;15:E763.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Williams DR, Yu Y, Jackson JS, Anderson NB. Racial differences in physical and mental health: socio-economic status, stress and discrimination. J Health Psychol. 1997;2:335–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Williams DR, Lawrence JA, Davis BA. Racism and Health: Evidence and Needed Research. Annu Rev Public Health. 2019;40:105–25.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  41. Assari S. Blacks’ diminished return of education attainment on subjective health; mediating effect of income. Brain Sci. 2018;8:176.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  42. Hudson DL, Neighbors HW, Geronimus AT, Jackson JS. Racial discrimination, John Henryism, and depression among African Americans. J Black Psychol. 2016;42:221–43.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  43. Gaydosh L, Schorpp KM, Chen E, Miller GE, Harris KM. College completion predicts lower depression but higher metabolic syndrome among disadvantaged minorities in young adulthood. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2018;115:109–14.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Brinker J, Cheruvu VK. Social and emotional support as a protective factor against current depression among individuals with adverse childhood experiences. Prev Med Rep. 2017;5:127–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Cheong EV, Sinnott C, Dahly D, Kearney PM. Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and later-life depression: perceived social support as a potential protective factor. BMJ Open. 2017;7:e013228.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  46. Patel OP, Quist A, Martin CL, Wegienka G, Baird DD, Wise LA, et al. Life-Course mobility in socioeconomic position and high depressive symptoms among young Black Women: The SELF study. Womens Health Issues Off Publ Jacobs Inst Womens Health. 2023;33:266–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Baird DD, Harmon QE, Upson K, Moore KR, Barker-Cummings C, Baker S, et al. A Prospective, Ultrasound-Based Study to Evaluate Risk Factors for Uterine Fibroid Incidence and Growth: Methods and Results of Recruitment. J Womens Health. 2015;24:907–15.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Radloff LS. The CES-D Scale: A Self-Report Depression Scale for Research in the General Population. Appl Psychol Meas. 1977;1:385–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Torres E. Psychometric Properties of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale in African American and Black Caribbean US Adults. Issues Ment Health Nurs. 2012;33:687–96.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  50. Nylund KL, Asparouhov T, Muthén BO. Deciding on the Number of Classes in Latent Class Analysis and Growth Mixture Modeling: A Monte Carlo Simulation Study. Struct Equ Model Multidiscip J. 2007;14:535–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Akaike H. A new look at the statistical model identification. IEEE Trans Autom Control. 1974;19:716–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Lo Y, Mendell NR, Rubin DB. Testing the number of components in a normal mixture. Biometrika. 2001;88:767–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Schwarz G. Estimating the Dimension of a Model. Ann Stat. 1978;6:461–4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Greenland S, Pearl J, Robins JM. Causal Diagrams for Epidemiologic Research. Epidemiology. 1999;10:37–48.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Shen Y, Varma DS, Zheng Y, Boc J, Hu H. Age at menarche and depression: results from the NHANES 2005–2016. PeerJ. 2019;7:e7150.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  56. Braithwaite D, Moore DH, Lustig RH, Epel ES, Ong KK, Rehkopf DH, et al. Socioeconomic status in relation to early menarche among black and white girls. Cancer Causes Control CCC. 2009;20:713–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Broadhead WE, Blazer DG, George LK, Tse CK. Depression, Disability Days, and Days Lost From Work in a Prospective Epidemiologic Survey. JAMA. 1990;264:2524–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Moussavi S, Chatterji S, Verdes E, Tandon A, Patel V, Ustun B. Depression, chronic diseases, and decrements in health: results from the World Health Surveys. Lancet Lond Engl. 2007;370:851–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Ge L, Yap CW, Ong R, Heng BH. Social isolation, loneliness and their relationships with depressive symptoms: A population-based study. PLoS One. 2017;12:e0182145.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  60. Bailey RK, Mokonogho J, Kumar A. Racial and ethnic differences in depression: current perspectives. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2019;15:603–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  61. Remmert JE, Guzman G, Mavandadi S, Oslin D. Racial Disparities in Prescription of Antidepressants Among U.S. Veterans Referred to Behavioral Health Care. Psychiatr Serv Wash DC. 2022;appips202100237.

  62. Osborn CY, Trott HW, Buchowski MS, Patel KA, Kirby LD, Hargreaves MK, et al. Racial disparities in the treatment of depression in low-income persons with diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2010;33:1050–4.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  63. Han E, Liu GG. Racial disparities in prescription drug use for mental illness among population in US. J Ment Health Policy Econ. 2005;8:131–43.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Chen J, Dagher R. Gender and Race/Ethnicity Differences in Mental Health Care Use before and during the Great Recession. J Behav Health Serv Res. 2016;43:187–99.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Assari S. Race, Depression, and Financial Distress in a Nationally Representative Sample of American Adults. Brain Sci. 2019;9:E29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. Minh A, Bültmann U, Reijneveld SA, van Zon SKR, McLeod CB. Childhood Socioeconomic Status and Depressive Symptom Trajectories in the Transition to Adulthood in the United States and Canada. J Adolesc Health Off Publ Soc Adolesc Med. 2021;68:161–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  67. Solorzano D, Ceja M, Yosso T. Critical Race Theory, Racial Microaggressions, and Campus Racial Climate: The Experiences of African American College Students. J Negro Educ. 2000;69:60–73.

    Google Scholar 

  68. DeCuir-Gunby JT, Johnson OT, Womble Edwards C, McCoy WN, White AM. African American professionals in higher education: experiencing and coping with racial microaggressions. Race Ethn Educ. 2020;23:492–508.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  69. Ogunyemi D, Clare C, Astudillo YM, Marseille M, Manu E, Kim S. Microaggressions in the learning environment: A systematic review. J Divers High Educ. 2020;13:97–119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Lewis JA, Williams MG, Peppers EJ, Gadson CA. Applying intersectionality to explore the relations between gendered racism and health among Black women. J Couns Psychol. 2017;64:475–86.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Lewis JA, Mendenhall R, Harwood SA, Browne HM. Coping with Gendered Racial Microaggressions among Black Women College Students. J Afr Am Stud. 2013;17:51–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. Williams MG, Lewis JA. Gendered Racial Microaggressions and Depressive Symptoms Among Black Women: A Moderated Mediation Model. Psychol Women Q. 2019;43:368–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  73. Jones MK, Leath S, Settles IH, Doty D, Conner K. Gendered racism and depression among Black women: Examining the roles of social support and identity. Cultur Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol. 2022;28:39–48.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Szymanski DM, Lewis JA. Gendered Racism, Coping, Identity Centrality, and African American College Women’s Psychological Distress. Psychol Women Q. 2016;40:229–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  75. Beauboeuf-Lafontant T. You Have to Show Strength: An Exploration of Gender, Race, and Depression. Gend Soc. 2007;21:28–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  76. Abrams JA, Hill A, Maxwell M. Underneath the Mask of the Strong Black Woman Schema: Disentangling Influences of Strength and Self-Silencing on Depressive Symptoms among U.S. Black Women. Sex Roles. 2019;80:517–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Watson-Singleton NN. Strong Black Woman Schema and Psychological Distress: The Mediating Role of Perceived Emotional Support. J Black Psychol. 2017;43:778–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  78. Watson NN, Hunter CD. Anxiety and depression among African American women: The costs of strength and negative attitudes toward psychological help-seeking. Cultur Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol. 2015;21:604–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Harrington EF, Crowther JH, Shipherd JC. Trauma, binge eating, and the “strong Black woman.” J Consult Clin Psychol. 2010;78:469–79.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Donovan RA, West LM. Stress and Mental Health: Moderating Role of the Strong Black Woman Stereotype. J Black Psychol. 2015;41:384–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  81. Kaldor J, Clayton D. Latent class analysis in chronic disease epidemiology. Stat Med. 1985;4:327–35.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. United States Census Bureau. US Census Bureau’s American Community Survey. January 1. 2014; Accessed May 1, 2023.

  83. Quist AJL, Han X, Baird DD, Wise LA, Wegienka G, Woods-Giscombe CL, et al. Life Course Racism and Depressive Symptoms among Young Black Women. J Urban Health. 2022;99:55–66.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  84. Makambi KH, Williams CD, Taylor TR, Rosenberg L, Adams-Campbell LL. An assessment of the CES-D scale factor structure in black women: The Black Women’s Health Study. Psychiatry Res. 2009;168:163–70.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  85. Williams CD, Taylor TR, Makambi K, Harrell J, Palmer JR, Rosenberg L, et al. CES-D four-factor structure is confirmed, but not invariant, in a large cohort of African American women. Psychiatry Res. 2007;150:173–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Goodwill JR. Testing for measurement invariance across gender in the 12-item CES-D: An investigation among a nationally representative sample of African Americans. Cultur Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol. 2021;27:369–75.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Canady RB, Stommel M, Holzman C. Measurement properties of the centers for epidemiological studies depression scale (CES-D) in a sample of African American and non-Hispanic White pregnant women. J Nurs Meas. 2009;17:91–104.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Jennifer M. Woo, Ph.D., M.P.H., a Fellow — IRTA Postdoctoral at the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences for her review of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the extramural program of the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R01-ES028235-S1). The research was also supported in part by the Intramural Research Program of the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, and funding also came from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act funds designated for NIH research.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA

    Chantel L. Martin, Lea Ghastine & Anissa I. Vines

  2. Department of Public Health Sciences, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI, USA

    Ganesa Wegienka

  3. Department of Epidemiology, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA

    Lauren A. Wise

  4. Epidemiology Branch, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA

    Donna D. Baird

Authors
  1. Chantel L. Martin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Lea Ghastine
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Ganesa Wegienka
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Lauren A. Wise
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Donna D. Baird
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Anissa I. Vines
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

The senior author (Anissa I. Vines) acquired the funding and conceptualized the initial plan for the sub-study. The first (Chantel Martin), second (Lea Ghastine), and senior author (Anissa I. Vines) contributed to the manuscript’s analysis plan and the co-writing of the initial draft of the manuscript. Material preparation and data collection were provided by (Donna Baird, Lauren Wise, Ganesa Wegienka). Analyses were performed by Chantel Martin with support from Lea Ghastine. All authors contributed scholarly input, interpretation of findings, and feedback on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Anissa I. Vines.

Ethics declarations

Ethics Approval

The parent study was reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board at the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) and Henry Ford Health System. This is an observational study. The Institutional Review Board at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill has confirmed that no ethical approval is required.

Competing Interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary file1 (DOCX 47 KB)

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Martin, C.L., Ghastine, L., Wegienka, G. et al. Early Life Disadvantage and the Risk of Depressive Symptoms among Young Black Women. J. Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities 11, 1819–1828 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-023-01654-x

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-023-01654-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation