Interpretation of Meta-analysis Findings
We identified no effect of fixture congestion on total distance covered during soccer match-play [p = 0.134, pooled SMD = 0.12 (− 0.04, 0.28); Fig. 2]. When all studies were grouped together, distance covered during a congested period was 10,565 ± 991 m and 10,475 ± 880 m during a non-congested period. There were differences between the five studies with regard to the method used to measure distance covered. Three of the studies used semi-automated tracking systems (Amisco: [23, 24] and ProZone: [16]) and two used Micromechanical systems (MEMS) devices (Catapult Sports Optimeye X4: [25] and Qstarz-1 Hz: [26]). Furthermore, in this meta-analysis, the number of player observations was used as the method of sampling. The number of player observations varied between studies, as did the number of observations within studies between congested and non-congested periods (although the sum of player observations between congested and non-congested periods when all five studies were combined was 836 and 820, respectively). Therefore, the differences in equipment used and observation frequency may explain the moderate heterogeneity observed (I2 = 40.7%). Indeed, researchers have demonstrated that there is small-to-moderate differences in total distance covered when simultaneously measured by both automated tracking systems and MEMS devices during soccer match-play [27, 28]. Therefore, although the present meta-analysis suggests no differences in total distance covered between congested and non-congested periods, further studies should look to use similar methods to measure physical performance, and use consistent movement velocity thresholds when measuring distances covered at different movement intensities. Metrics such as high-intensity distance covered, sprints, accelerations and decelerations, are likely to be of greater interest to practitioners and coaches and, therefore, these measures should be homogeneous between studies where possible.
The low number of articles eligible for the meta-analysis is reflective of an inconsistent methodological approach between studies in this area. We were unable to analyse any other variables, including arguably more relevant outcome measures, such as high-intensity running, sprinting, etc., as studies employed different thresholds when categorising different movements. Furthermore, some studies did not directly compare a congested period to a non-congested period in the same group of players and instead compared the first match in a congested schedule to subsequent matches. This exposed the analysis to the inherent variability evident in professional soccer match-play, due to the stochastic, dynamic nature of the sport [29, 30]. However, that is not to say this same variability may not influence the comparison between a congested and non-congested period, which is dependent on the sample size of the individual study. We identified using Duval and Tweedie’s Trim and Fill method that there was one missing article on the right side of the plot. Thus, when accounting for this missing article, there was a significant effect of fixture congestion on total distance covered (p = 0.045) but still with a trivial effect size [pooled SMD = 0.16 (0.00, 0.32)]. This may be due to authors not publishing data that suggest players cover greater distance in a congested fixture period. Nonetheless, we stress that this finding should be interpreted with caution as tests for funnel plot asymmetry tend to only have power to detect true effects when there are ≥ 10 or more articles included in a meta-analysis [22].
Physical Performance
As highlighted in Sect. 5.1, there appears to have no negative effect of fixture congestion on the total running distance covered by male professional players. However, total distance covered is but one measure of physical performance, and whilst arguably a less relevant one than other measures, is commonly used by practitioners [31]. Notably, the majority of studies included in this systematic review also measured a number of other physical performance metrics in conjunction with total distance covered. However, not only were there methodological inconsistencies between studies for the movement velocity thresholds employed, but there were also differences in how authors compared a congested period to a non-congested period.
Some studies have attempted to assess the physical response to three successive elite soccer matches performed over a 6- to 7-day period [1, 16, 32]. These studies all reported no differences in the total distance covered and distances covered at high intensities (HID) across the successive matches. Folgado et al. [16] also identified no differences in the distances covered in all locomotion categories across the successive matches. However, Odetoyinbo et al. [32] did identify that distance covered and duration of walking, HID whilst in possession of the ball, and HID when the ball was out of play were all significantly lower in the third match compared to the first. These data suggest total distance covered and overall HID are not significantly impaired when three matches are played over 7 days; however, when three matches are performed over 6 days, players may potentially alter their activity profiles in an attempt to reduce the volume of activity performed [32]. However, and critically, it is not known if these observed differences are a result of contextual factors or reduced physical capacity. In contrast to these investigations, Andrzejewski et al. [14] observed significantly higher total distance covered and distances covered in different speed threshold categories up to 21 km·h−1 in the third match of three matches in 7 days’ microcycle, with no changes in the number of sprints or distance covered ≥ 21 km·h−1. However, the data were from 11 players playing for the same club, with no indication from the authors on the quality of the opposition faced in each match, or the score line. It is possible that the third match was against superior opposition and/or a closer match score-wise compared to the other two matches, which may have influenced the physical response [33, 34].
A strength of Odetoyinbo et al. [32] is that the data collected were from 16 players playing for four different teams, whereas the players from Folgado et al. [16] and Carling and Dupont [1] were from the same team (in the English Premier League and French Ligue 1, respectively). The first two matches in the study conducted by Odetoyinbo et al. [32] were interspersed with 48 h recovery, whereas each of the matches in Carling et al. and Folgado et al. [1, 16] was interspersed by 72 h of recovery. Therefore, it seems feasible that the reduced recovery time associated with the first two matches in Odetoyinbo et al. [32] may have elicited the observed fatigue response identified in the third match. Other authors have compared the physical outputs of players when two matches were played with 3 days’ rest in between [35]. There was no difference between matches played in close proximity by elite Spanish players [35]. However, this study scored 40% on the quality assessment tool (low quality; Table 2) and did not report how many matches were included in the study, or any contextual factors, such as match location, quality of opposition, and tactical approach. Furthermore, Dupont et al. [36] observed no differences in physical performance when elite French players played two matches in a week. However, these authors did not report any data within their manuscript, making comparisons to other studies difficult.
Studies conducted by Carling et al. [2] and Dellal et al. [3] assessed the physical response to a period of prolonged fixture congestion (six–eight matches performed over 18–26 days) in elite French soccer. Dellal et al. [3] identified no significant differences in any of the physical performance measures recorded across the six congested matches; however, any statistically significant differences between individual matches may have been missed by a lack of an overall main effect. Although the authors compared the data collected during the periods of fixture congestion to that identified during a non-congested schedule, this was only for injuries not physical performance. Therefore, it would have been pertinent for the authors not only to compare physical performance within a congested period (e.g., match 1 compared to match 6), but also compare to a non-congested period in the same group of players. In contrast, Carling et al. [2] identified that distances covered at low intensities and total distance covered differed between some matches in an eight-match congested schedule. However, this was not systematic, with one match in particular (match 4) being significantly different to five other matches, and matches 7 and 8 being different to two matches and one match, respectively. However, when compared with periods of no congestion (although the authors did not define what this was), there was no difference in any of the physical performance metrics measured, indicating that this group of elite French players was able to maintain physical output during a congested schedule. However, it should be noted that the authors did not report how many of the players who were included in the congested analysis played in the non-congested matches, including the number of minutes played. Therefore, caution should be taken when interpreting the findings of this study.
Morgans et al. [37] followed a similar methodology, assessing physical performance changes during seven matches in 29-day microcycle in a group of English Premier League players. Whilst the authors reported the overall sample size (n = 21), they did not report how many players played in all seven matches, or the percentage that played > 75 min. Therefore, the findings may have been affected by substitutions and players not starting or playing in all of the matches.
Mohr et al. [38] took a different approach to most of the other studies reviewed, as instead of using data from professional soccer match-play, they created three matches in one-week scenario in a group of competitive male players (n = 40; had to have played in the top three divisions of their country’s league system in the past 5 years; the country is not specified). The authors observed a 7–14% decrement in high-intensity distance covered in the second match compared to the first (played 3 days prior) and third (played 4 days after) matches. No other differences were observed between matches, and this difference in high-intensity distance is lower than the coefficient of variation previously reported for this measure [29, 30] and, therefore, may be reflective of match-to-match variability as opposed to residual fatigue from the first match. Although beyond the scope of this systematic review, these authors showed that players were unable to fully recover physical function between the three matches, and that there was an increase in muscle soreness and muscular inflammation, particularly following the second match. This was less pronounced following match three, which may demonstrate that there is a significant effect on performance between 3 and 4 days of recovery.
All studies included in the meta-analysis also reported data from other measures of physical performance, not just total distance covered. Both Folgado et al. [16] and Lago-Peñas et al. [23] observed no changes in distance covered at various velocity ranges between a congested and non-congested period. It should be noted that the six matches in Folgado et al. [16] were all played (and won) at home against lower level opposition, which may have influenced the observed response [33]. Similarly, Djaoui et al. [24] observed no differences in distance covered at speeds ≥ 18 km·h−1 between congested and non-congested periods, although they showed central defenders cover more low-intensity (< 12 km·h−1) distance during congested periods. It is well established that position-specific differences in physical performance exist during soccer match-play [34, 39,40,41] and, as such, match-play analyses should be considered in relation to player positions. These positional differences also exist during periods of fixture congestion [15, 24, 42]. In support of this, Carling et al. [43] identified that defensive players were more likely to complete > 75 min of match-play compared to other positions, thus exposing defensive players to congested schedules. Whilst low-intensity distance covered was significantly increased in central defenders in Djaoui et al. [24], the distance covered by central defenders at higher velocities, whilst not statistically different, was lower in the congested periods. Furthermore, Penedo-Jamardo et al. [15] reported significantly lower distances covered and number of fast runs (speed of ≥ 5.0 m‧s−2 for ≥ 1 s) performed by central defenders during matches preceded by < 4 days recovery from a previous match, compared to > 5 days.
Therefore, this may indicate a change in movement intensity by central defenders during fixture congestion, either by a conscious pacing strategy, or due to match-related fatigue. However, Jones et al., Palucci Vieira et al. and Soroka and Lago-Penas [25, 26, 44] did not observe any changes in central defensive players’ physical performance in congested periods. In professional Brazilian football players, fixture congestion has differential effects on physical performance [26]. Palucci Vieira et al. [26] observed position, formation, match location and match outcome-specific effects during congested periods (defined as two matches a week vs. one match a week) on some physical performance parameters. In particular, they showed that forwards perform less high-intensity activity in congested periods and there is less high-intensity activity in drawn matches and when using a 4-3-3 formation as opposed to 4-4-2. Furthermore, total distance and average velocities were reduced during congested fixtures played away compared to at home. However, it must be noted that all effect sizes for these reported differences were trivial or small [26].
Soroka and Lago-Penas [44] analysed players who completed 90 min of three matches each separated by 4 days of rest in the group stage of the 2014 FIFA World Cup. They found that players covered more distance in the third match than the second match (and the first match compared to the second match), with concomitant increases in the amount of light-intensity and moderate-intensity running in the first half of the third match compared to both the first and second matches. This may be reflective of the importance of the final group stage match, although no differences were observed for high-intensity distance or number of sprints. These authors also observed position-specific changes in physical performance during the three group stage matches, with central midfielders covering less total distance and high-intensity running distance during the third match compared to first match, whereas wide midfielders and forwards covered more total distance and wide midfielders also covered more distance at moderate and high intensities. Without contextual data, such as the formations employed by teams in the final group stage matches, or the permutations regarding qualification to the knockout stage, it is difficult to fully interpret these findings.
Penedo-Jamardo et al. [15] observed significantly lower distance covered by full-backs and wide midfielders (dependent on season phase) when matches were separated by < 4 days compared to ≥ 5 days. Furthermore, these authors observed reduced total distance covered in the early- and mid-season phase of the 2011/12 German Bundesliga season when there were < 4 days of recovery between matches compared to > 5 days recovery, irrespective of playing position. With the high number of matches (n = 306) and player observations (n = 4491) in this study, the findings may indicate that less than 4 days of recovery between matches are insufficient for players to be able to maintain some aspects of physical performance (see Table 2). However, the number of fast runs and sprints was not affected by fixture congestion. The findings of this study are in contrast to the findings of the meta-analysis (Sect. 4.2), and indicate fixture congestion does indeed have a negative impact on performance.
Whilst Jones et al. [25] did not observe any differences in physical performance during fixture congestion when players were separated by position, they did observe reductions in total, low-intensity, and moderate-intensity distance covered in specific 15-min epochs in the final match of three matches in a week’s microcycle compared to when matches were played in one match per week or two matches per week microcycle. This is particularly relevant as when they compared whole match averages, there were no differences between matches in a congested vs. non-congested period. The findings from Penedo-Jamardo et al. and Jones et al. [15, 25] seem to suggest that reductions in low-intensity distance covered when there is limited recovery time between matches may be due to conscious or unconscious pacing strategies employed by the players to preserve their ability to perform high-intensity movements [25, 45].
Technical and Tactical Performance
In comparison to the larger body of literature that has investigated changes in physical performance during periods of fixture congestion, there is a paucity of research that has examined changes in technical (i.e., skill) and tactical performance. Within our searches, we identified five published journal articles that have analysed the impact of fixture congestion on technical (four) or tactical (one) performance (Table 3). Technical performance is well maintained during periods of fixture congestion, with no changes in performance during a microcycle when players are exposed to three matches in 7 days or less [14], or when six consecutive matches are played with 3 days’ rest in between [1]. The findings of these two studies should be interpreted with caution, as the matches may have been influenced by contextual factors (e.g., match location, quality of opposition, and score line) and the small, homogenous sample sizes. Indeed, Andrzejewski et al. [14] investigated 11 players from the same Polish Ekstralasa (highest professional division in Poland) club, and Carling & Dupont [1] assessed seven midfield players who either played in one (four players) or two (three players) sequences of three matches in 7 days during 1 month of the French Ligue 1 season. However, two studies with larger sample sizes and a higher number of instances of fixture congestion have also identified no effect of fixture congestion on technical performance [3, 15]. Nevertheless, Penedo-Jamardo [15] only investigated the effect of time between matches on one variable (pass accuracy), with no indication of how this was measured, including the validity and reliability of the measure. Furthermore, in the three instances of fixture congestion analysed in Dellal et al. [3], only five or six players’ technical performance was assessed in each instance, with all players representing the same French Ligue 1 club. Again, performances may have been influenced by contextual variables and be reflective of this club only (as acknowledged by the authors). As such, whilst the current evidence suggests that fixture congestion has no effect on technical performance, further investigations utilising data from multiple clubs with an analysis of position-specific differences and a broader range of more meaningful measures (e.g., expected goals for and against, expected assists, pass/cross accuracy in the final third of the pitch, and loss or gain of possession due to interceptions). As technical performance between matches has been shown to be more variable than physical performance [46], large datasets are required to ensure any differences during congested schedules are meaningful and reflective of actual changes.
Table 3 Summary of studies investigating technical and/or tactical performance during periods of fixture congestion Only one published research investigation has assessed changes in tactical performance during a period of fixture congestion. Folgado et al. [16] assessed dyadic synchronisation of pairs of players in an English Premier League team during a period of congested (three matches with 3 days recovery between each match) vs. non-congested fixtures (three matches with 6 or more days recovery between each match). The authors observed reduced synchronisation between dyads [in particular between wide players (i.e., full-backs and wingers) and other positions] during the congested period vs. the non-congested period at low/moderate movement intensities (0.0–14.3 km·h−1), but not at high/very high movement intensities (> 14.4 km·h−1). They postulated that the reduced synchronisation at low/moderate intensities may have been due to mental fatigue, and players deliberately adopting pacing strategies to preserve energy [17, 45]. Nevertheless, these changes in synchronisation during a congested period may also be due to the lower amount of available time to train between matches, with likely greater emphasis placed on rest and regeneration protocols. With less time to train, there is less opportunity for teams to train together and improve tactical behaviours. It should be noted that all matches were played (and won) against lower level opposition, which may have influenced the observed response (e.g., players ‘switching off’ when leading or playing against perceived lower level opposition). Nonetheless, the de-synchronisation between specific dyads may expose teams to counterattacks, where the suboptimal spatial and temporal relationship between players allows opponents opportunities to attack, particularly through wide areas. However, further research on tactical performance changes during fixture congestion is required, with larger sample sizes (e.g., multiple teams) and a greater number of instances of congestion.
Future Research Directions and Recommendations
Whilst the journal articles discussed provide somewhat of an overview of the effect of fixture congestion on performance, there is scope for future research to improve methods employed and expand the currently available data. Studies that do not compare a congested period to a non-congested period in the same group of players should be avoided, as comparing within a single congested microcycle only elicits a high risk of bias due to match-to-match variability, and leaves the measured variables open to contextual factors. Furthermore, to allow for future meta-analyses on other performance variables, such as high-intensity running, sprint speed, and the number of accelerations and decelerations, studies should aim to employ the same threshold definitions to allow for data to be accurately analysed and compared across studies, as well as report temporal changes across matches (e.g., across 15-min periods; [25]). Additionally, and in line with a call for more transparent research practices [47], we encourage authors to make their data available for analysis (whilst accounting for participant anonymity) on platforms such as the Open Science Framework (osf.io), as we have done in this article.
Assessing the types of movement performed would also provide a clearer picture of the effect of fixture congestion. For example, are players changing how much they press the opposition during congested periods, and how much of their movement contributes to overall attacking sequences? A recent mixed-method study [48] used a combination of network analysis and qualitative content analysis to assess the attacking behaviour of AS Monaco players during the 2016/17 French Ligue 1 season. Through interviews with the head coach and performance analyst, the authors were able to identify why certain players performed the way they did during the season. This type of collaboration within the context of fixture congestion would provide a robust overview of how performance changes during congestion, and how coaches potentially manipulate their tactics in the face of a high number of matches in a short duration [49].
The most recent paper assessing the frequency of exposure to fixture congestion was published in 2015 and only analysed players from one club [13]. In the context of contemporary fixture scheduling and statistical power, this article requires an update, with more than one club’s exposure to fixture congestion assessed. Furthermore, no studies have investigated the impact of fixture congestion in female soccer players; whilst this may not be a particularly prevalent issue during domestic competition schedules, the FIFA Women’s World Cup and the UEFA Women’s Championship may expose female players to congested periods that they are not accustomed to. Therefore, assessing the impact of fixture congestion on female players is required, especially as physical performance and markers of inflammation have been shown to change negatively following match-play in elite female soccer players [50, 51].
As players cover more high-intensity distance when playing superior opposition [52], if a team is to play three matches in 6–7 days all against better-ranked teams, there may be an exacerbated fatigue response in the recovery phase as players will have a higher physical output. This may then influence potential injury risk. Therefore, practitioners should aim to assess recovery daily during periods of fixture congestion to assess which players may be at highest risk of reduced performance and injury. Additionally, matches that require extra-time are typically played during congested periods (e.g., on a midweek evening between two weekend league matches, or during the knockout phase of international tournaments). Case studies have shown that ET may have an additional negative impact on recovery [53, 54]; however, studies in controlled environments (i.e., using laboratory-based simulations) are required.
In support of Page et al. [55], laboratory-based soccer simulations may also help identify the mechanisms that potentially explain reductions in performance during fixture congestion. Likewise, the use of protocols, such as the Intermittent Soccer Performance Test [56], that are performed on non-motorised treadmills and, therefore, can identify changes in running distance/speed could further enhance our understanding of congested match schedules. Mohr et al. [38] assessed the impact of three matches in 1 week and were able to measure recovery every day during that period. However, the design was susceptible to inherent match-to-match variation and, therefore, the use of validated and reliable simulations can increase the robustness of the data [55, 57]. Moreover, studies can then also use such designs to investigate the effectiveness of interventions that accelerate recovery and improve performance during congested periods [18].
Practical Applications
Coaches and practitioners should be aware that congested fixture periods may have an impact on the physical, technical and tactical performance of players. Whilst tactical performance has only been assessed in one study, there was reduced synchronisation between players, which could negatively impact the tactical strategy implemented. Furthermore, during fixture congestion, there is less high-intensity activity when employing a 4-3-3 formation compared to a 4-4-2 formation [26]. Therefore, coaches may want to identify systems and players that are particularly susceptible to fixture congestion, and adapt their strategies accordingly. For example, as Folgado et al. [16] identified increased susceptibly to counterattacks in wide areas, coaches may want to ensure that defensive midfield players are able to cover and prevent counterattacks in these areas when their team is attacking. However, it should be noted that time to work on tactical behaviours is limited during congested periods, and players may not be able to process complex information in close proximity to matches due to match-induced mental fatigue [58]. The data reported in this review suggest that central defenders in particular are the positional group most exposed to periods of fixture congestion, with attacking players the least exposed due to substitutions and rotation. Whilst central defenders typically have the lowest external workload during matches [34, 40, 59], practitioners should ensure that recovery protocols for these players are optimised and adapted to reflect their greater exposure to match-play compared to some of their teammates. Nevertheless, regardless of playing position, if a player is exposed to repeated match-play during congestion, then it is likely that they will have an increased risk of injury [60] and modulate the intensity of their movements, potentially impacting overall performance.