Introduction

Gender aspects of fisheries and fishery policies

Although fisheries have been traditionally associated with men, recent studies have recognized that fishery activities are organized based on a diverse gendered division of labor (Nadel-Klein and Davis 1988, Bennett 2005; Williams 2010; Frangoudes et al. 2019). The contribution of women to pre- and post-harvest activities, such as financing, processing, and marketing of the catch, has been reported in many areas (Weeratunge et al. 2010, Frocklin et al. 2013, Frangoudes and Gerrard 2018). The importance of capture fisheries and gleaning by women has also been reported (Harper et al. 2013, Kleiber et al. 2015). According to Harper et al. (2020), there are 2.1 million women who engage in small-scale fisheries and collect 2.9 million tons of marine fish and invertebrates annually, making up around 11% of participants in small-scale fishers. The projected landing value of the catch made by women is USD 5.6 billion (USD ± 1.5billion), with an economic effect of USD 14.8 billion (USD ± 4 billion), annually, or 25.6 billion (USD ± 7.2 billion) in actual 2010 dollars. Women frequently use nearshore areas as a fishing ground and tend to target sedentary species (such as seaweeds and shellfish) in these areas. This gender-differentiated use of marine resource (such as gender-differentiated target species and fishing grounds) is frequently attributed to women’s limited time and mobility as a result of their responsibilities related to domestic and caregiving duties at home (e.g., de la Torre-Castro et al. 2017). According to Gustavsson and Riley (2018), particular fishing spaces and practices are gendered, and this limits the extent to which women are able to accrue and exhibit the capital which would allow them equal standing to their fishing men within the fishing occupation and community. The gender disparity in involvement in fisheries management is also partly a result of women’s limited time and mobility as well as cultural practices (Kleiber et al. 2018, Siar 2018). It is crucial to take into account the various roles, actions, and relationships of all gender groups in the local fishery in order to properly understand the social-ecological systems (Ostrom 2009; McGinnis and Ostrom 2014) of coastal resource use.

Policy may have detrimental effects that particular to women when gender-differentiated marine resources use (such as target resources and fishing grounds) is not taken into account (Leach 2015, Castro-Diaz et al. 2018). According to Terry (2009), Cohen et al. (2016), and Ravera et al. (2016), gender differentiated environment (e.g., access to education, information or assets) might affect vulnerability or adaptive capacity to rapid or unexpected environmental change such as climate change. In their research on the Solomon Islands, Cohen et al. (2016) identified five factors that influence adaptive capacity, including assets, flexibility, learning, social organization and agency. Due to their limited physical mobility and educational options, women in the Solomon Islands may face difficulties to establish relations with external agencies to receive technical support or new information important for adapting or innovating. Development should be carries out carefully to encourage fair advances while preventing the escalation of already-existing inequality. To minimize discriminatory negative effects on certain gender groups and to achieve sustainable fishery development by adopting a gender lens, it is essential to promote gender-responsive policies and gender-responsive research (FAO 2007, 2015; Kleiber et al. 2017; Torre-Castro et al. 2017; Gissi et al. 2018).

Gender aspects of coastal fisheries and fishery policies in Japan

Gendered division of labor is often seen in Japanese coastal fisheries, where the majority of Japanese fishers are employed (e.g., Iwasaki 1974; Miki 1999). The contribution of women to coastal fisheries and coastal communities through the activities of a women’s group in Fisheries Cooperative Associations (FCAs) or the entrepreneurial activities of women are recognized in many parts of Japan (e.g., Miki 2000, Soejima and Frangoudes, 2019).

Some Japanese policy documents include gender aspects of fisheries. For instance, the necessity for a fair assessment of the roles of women in fisheries and environmental improvement to secure opportunities for women to participate in fisheries and relevant activities is stated in the Fisheries Basic Act and Basic Plan for Fisheries (MAFF (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries) 2001, 2022). The Basic Plan for Gender Equality approved by the Cabinet Office also includes measures to increase the participation of women in local decision-making processes in rural areas and to improve their economic status by supporting entrepreneurial efforts by women’s groups in fishing communities from its first version in 2000 to the latest version of 2020 (Gender Equality Bureau Cabinet Office 2021). The Intensive Policy for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women formulated in 2022 also include the promotion of the participation of women in the board of directors of FCAs and emphasize setting specific targets as part of the “Solid Implementation of the Fifth Basic Plan for Gender Equality” (Gender Equality Bureau Cabinet and Office 2021).

However, female members of FCAs that are the official representatives of the fishing communities accounted for only 5.74%, and female board members accounted for only 0.42% of the total (MAFF (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries) 2019b). One of the biggest reasons for this limited number of female members in FCAs is the “one-member in the FCAs per household” practice by which resource rights allocation among households is controlled (Miki 1999; Soejima and Frangoudes 2019).

This paper reviews previous studies on the gender aspects of Japanese coastal fisheries, and compare the results with a review of studies from other countries. Following the literature review, we identified features of previous studies on the gender aspects of Japanese coastal fisheries. We discussed the research topics necessary to promote gender-responsive fishery policies in Japan. As far as we know, this paper is the first article to review a trend of studies on the gender aspects of Japanese coastal fisheries in an international scientific journal. Since many of the studies reviewed in this paper were published in Japanese, this paper is also significant in sharing insights relevant to the gender aspects of Japanese coastal fisheries that have been published in Japanese.

Studies on gender aspects of Japanese coastal fisheries

Two review papers by Natsuko Miki (2005, 2008) are the foundation of this section. However, certain information and studies especially that were published after 2010 are also included here (Table 1).

Table 1 Major research topics of gender aspects of Japanese coastal fisheries
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The 1960s anthropological studies on women in fisheries

Since the 1960s, some anthropological studies on women in fisheries have been conducted. Segawa (1970) studied the ethnographies of “Ama” in six areas of Japan, including Boshu (Chiba pref.), Shima (Mie pref.), Echizen (Fukui pref.), Noto (Ishikawa pref.), and Nagato (Yamaguchi pref.). Ama was described as the breadwinner of the communities. Iwasaki has studied the outstanding diving skills and ethnographies of Amas for many years (Iwasaki 1974, 1975a, b, c). Women have been engaged in small-scale seafood trades with terrestrial communities (e.g., Segawa 1971). “Ukiju” is a partnership of local fish sellers and buyers on Ishigaki Island in Okinawa prefecture. In most cases, both are fisher wives (Imamura 1989). The Ukiju partnership maintains a stable local seafood market with efficient communication among fisher wives.

The 1970s fisheries socio-economic studies with gender aspects

In the 1970s, gender aspects began to be involved in Japanese fisheries socio-economics. Iwasaki (1974) raised the importance of the labor of women in Japanese coastal fisheries and sorted the labor of women into three typologies: (1) direct participation (e.g., onboard activities, aquaculture), (2) indirect participation (e.g., financing, processing, marketing), and (3) other contributions (e.g., wage labor in other industries to support households). The overwork of women with fisheries-related work and domestic and care work has also been pointed out. Kase (1985) reported that women dominated over 40% of aquaculture farmers and shell or seaweed gleaners. This researcher explained that these fishing methods have greater flexibility in working time. In contrast, women are also engaged in capturing fisheries, particularly fishing that requires more people onboard, such as small-scale gill nets. Miki (1997) studied gendered labor in Japanese artisanal fisheries. According to the ninth Fishery Census of Japan surveyed in 1993, 90% of land-based workers in fisheries-related industries were women. Miki pointed out the invisibility of female workers in official statistics. The researcher also reported that 39% of women engaged in artisanal fisheries were unpaid, and 35% were paid only when they needed cash. Soejima and Yano (2004) indicated that fisheries-related land-based work, which women tend to dominate, is labor that requires highly skilled techniques and contributes to the economies of the communities, while raising the overwork of women as a severe problem to be solved.

According to the Fishery Census, between 2003 and 2018, the number of female fishers decreased by about 65%. Additionally, the percentage of women in the total fishing population also declined (MAFF (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries) 2003, 2018). However, some FCAs are promoting the recruitment of new fishers, mainly young women, to maintain an organization facing severe population decline in rural areas (Miki 2015, 2021, 2022). This trend would promote the participation of women in Japanese coastal fisheries.

The 1990s studies on the women’s groups in FCAs

Since the 1990s, studies on the activities of women’s groups in FCAs have begun to obtain significantly more attention. Conventionally, FCAs are composed of groups based on the target species or fishing methods. In addition to these existing groups, women’s groups have developed since the 1950s. As of 2021, they included 26,301 members with 545 groups around Japan (National Association of Fishery Cooperative’s Women’s groups 2010, Japan National Federation of Fishery Cooperative n.d.).

The activities of the women’s groups initially focused on improving livelihood by reducing living expenses and incentivizing savings. Nonetheless, the activities of these groups have gradually diversified to environmental conservation (e.g., beach cleaning, promotion of eco-friendly product use) (Miki 2010). “Wakashio” is an original brand of eco-friendly soaps developed through collaboration between women’s groups of FCAs and pharmaceutical companies (Seki 2008). These activities led by women can be considered to enhance the ecological sustainability of marine resource use.

Processing for adding value to local catch or running local restaurants with local seafood has also been a significant activity in the women’s groups. Those activities for processing or marketing started to transform from voluntary to entrepreneurial activities in some areas (Soejima and Frangoudes 2019). Recently, such entrepreneurial activities by women in fishing communities, which began as collective activities of women’s groups, have been moving into a new phase with an individual-driven business perspective in some areas (Miki 2021).

These diverse activities of the women’s groups provide direct and indirect contributions to the communities, such as (1) adding economic value to underutilized seafood, (2) passing on traditional cuisines, (3) creating jobs and generating income for women, elders, or youth, and (4) improving the well-being of community members engaged in the activities (Seki 2004; Miki 2010; Soejima 2004; Soejima et al. 2004). In addition to the previously noted contribution to ecological sustainability, these actions may also be seen as contributing to social and economic sustainability. However, dwindling membership due to the lack of new entrants of young women is a severe challenge in maintaining women’s groups around Japan (Miki 2010).

The 2000s studies on the contribution of women to maintaining local communities

Aging and marginalization in coastal communities are severe problems in Japan. Since the 2000s, studies on the contributions of women to tackling those social issues have increased (Yano et al. 2004; Seki and Goto 2012).

Sanmi Sea Mothers is an entrepreneurial group composed mainly of members of the women’s group of FCA in Hagi, Yamaguchi prefecture, the western part of Japan (Soejima and Makino 2018). The delivery service of Bento (boxed lunch), one of their primary activities, was developed based on the needs of older people in the community who had difficulties cooking or grocery shopping. Their service supports such older people and generates economic benefits for fishers, since Sanmi Sea Mothers actively purchase under-utilized seafood for making Bento.

In Kamitsushima-cho, Nagasaki Prefecture, the women in the community organized a social gathering for older people (Miki 2021). The gathering mainly targeted older women who had retired from fishery-related work. Participants gathered to chat and ate lunch together once in two weeks. The organizers prepared and sold groceries at almost the same price as the food purchased during the gathering to support participants having difficulties shopping independently. Also, in Oita Prefecture, a woman of a fishing community has established a short-stay facility for older people (Miki 2021).

Comparison between studies of other countries and studies of Japan

In this section, we review studies of other countries on gender aspects of small-scale fisheries or coastal fisheries to capture the features of the previous studies of Japan through comparison. Globally, studies on gender-differentiated coastal resource use are popular research topics. In some areas of the Asia–Pacific, Africa, and Europe, men focus on capturing fisheries on the sea, and women dominate pre- and post-harvest activities, such as financing, processing, and marketing. However, women also play a vital role in capturing fisheries of marine fish and invertebrates in some areas (Weeratunge et al. 2010, Harper et al. 2013, 2020). Based on gendered labor, women and men often target different fishing grounds and species (Furkon et al. 2020, Siar 2018, Purcell et al. 2018). In Tanzania, it has been reported that male and female fish traders utilize different market systems and networks to trade seafood products based on gender (Frocklin et al. 2013). It is essential to understand gender-differentiated marine resource use to understand a complete picture of the social-ecological systems of marine resource use in communities (Frocklin et al. 2014, de la Torre-Castro et al. 2017). Compared to these studies, previous studies in Japan tended to specifically focus on the activities of women, such as Ama or women’s groups of FCAs. Most of these studies in Japan also focused more on the social aspects of the activities and rarely touched on ecological aspects of gender-differentiated resource use (e.g., gender-differentiated impacts on resources). The activities and relations of all gender groups and their ecological effects should be studied to understand the complete picture of the social-ecological systems of coastal resource use in Japan.

The importance of gender-disaggregated data has also been recognized, since the activities of women tend to be underrecognized in fisheries statistics. In the Pacific region, the catch of women, which has not been identified in official statistics, is estimated to account for 56% of annual small-scale catches. This accounts for an economic impact of 363 million USD (Harper et al. 2013). Gender-blind statistical data may miss these catches tends to be underrepresented in statistics (hidden harvest; FAO, Duke University and WorldFish, 2022) and may hinder a proper understanding of the overall picture of marine resource use (Frocklin et al. 2014, Lekshmi et al. 2022). In the Fisheries Census of Japan, fishers are defined as “a person who is over 15 years old and has been engaged in at-sea work in the fishery for at least 30 days per year in the past year.” Still, women engaged in on-land work are excluded from this definition (MAFF (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries), 2018). Gender-disaggregated data should be collected to better understand the gender-differentiated contribution to each process of seafood value chain and fully utilize the knowledge of diverse stakeholders for fisheries management.

The gender-differentiated impacts of policies are another feature of research topics. When new policies are enacted, women and men can be affected differently based on their gender-differentiated resource use. For example, in the Brazilian Amazon, the construction of the Belo Monte Hydroelectric Dam caused changes in water quality and accessible fishing spots. Consequently, male and female fishers were affected differently since they used different fishing grounds based on gender (Castro-Diaz et al. 2018). While blue economy policies have been promoted in some parts of the world to achieve sustainable use of ocean resources for economic growth, improved livelihoods and jobs and ocean ecosystem health, the need to ensure social and economic justice (i.e. blue justice; TBTI Global n.d.) for small-scale fishers and other local stakeholders has been recognized (Cohen et al. 2019; Gustavsson et al. 2021). Gender equity is recognized as a part of blue justice since newer and higher-earning jobs created in the ocean economy are often provided only for men (e.g., tourism, industrialized aquaculture, oil and gas, blue carbon, offshore wind industry). The engagement of women in consultation, decision making, or the mapping process is needed to avoid negative impacts on women and provide opportunities both for women and men through the promotion of blue economy policies (Bennett et al. 2021). Furthermore, fishery policy instruments often narrowed the concept of gender to focus only on women. Their approaches are often designed to “reach” women, and very few were designed to “benefit,” “empower,” or “transform” the lives of women (Lawless et al. 2021; Mangubhai and Lawless 2021). Critical shifts in gender equality narratives and objectives are needed to achieve effective and equitable coastal fisheries.

Gender-differentiated vulnerability and adaptive capacity to rapid or unexpected environmental change have also been studied. Gender roles and relations that control access to resources, livelihood patterns, physical mobility, and participation in decision making shape gender-differentiated vulnerability and the capacity of people to adapt to climate change (IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) 2007, Terry 2009). In the Solomon Islands, gender differentiation in access to education, assets, information, or external organizations causes the gender-differentiated adaptive capacity to extreme or unexpected events such as climate change (Cohen et al. 2016). Addressing gender inequality is key to increasing the adaptive capacity not only of women but also of societies, since gendered traditional or indigenous knowledge can be fully utilized to adapt to change and innovative solutions (McLeod et al. 2018, Ryan et al. 2022, Singh et al. 2022, Kleisner et al. 2022, Phelan et al. 2022). Kawarazuka et al. (2017) mentioned that bringing gender and social-ecological resilience analyses together in small-scale fisheries research can generate a robust understanding of integrated social and ecological systems. Andrijevic et al. (2020) also show that in the area with a lower Gender Inequality Index, vulnerability is also lower, and climate action is more active. Studies on gender-differentiated vulnerability and the adaptive capacity of women and men in coastal communities are still scarce in Japan.

Discussion and conclusion

Features of previous studies on gender aspects of Japanese coastal fisheries

Previous studies of Japanese coastal fisheries with a gender lens have focused more on the activities of women, particularly in anthropological studies or socio-economic studies. These studies have played a vital role in making the activities and contributions of women visible and providing appropriate support in policy dialog. However, these features of previous studies of Japan have strengths and weaknesses, which will be needed to overcome weaknesses while further enhancing strengths.

The accumulated knowledge of the diverse activities of women in fishing communities is a significant strength of previous studies of Japanese coastal fisheries. Adding to the studies included in this review, over 1,200 case studies of the activities by women and youth in fishing communities are reported at the National Youth and Women Fishers Exchange Contest held by the Japan National Federation of Fishery Cooperative Association since 1995. At this national convention, citizens from fishing communities (mainly members of women’s groups and youth’s groups), report the results of their research and practical activities. The reports are accessible on their website [https://www.zengyoren.or.jp/business/gyosei/compe/ (in Japanese)]. These studies on women in fisheries and the records of the National Youth and Women Fishers Exchange Contest have contributed to increasing visibility of women. They are considered to promote gender inclusion better in fishing management, as directed in the Basic Plan of Fisheries (MAFF (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries) 2022). That accumulated knowledge would also be utilized in other countries to empower women in small-scale fisheries as case studies when translated into other languages, since most of them are reported only in Japanese.

On the other hand, studies to understand the relations, differences, or interactions of all gender groups in coastal fisheries are scarce, since most previous studies focused only on women. Although studies on women make their activities visible and their contribution valued, those studies can also reinforce stereotyped gender roles and hinder necessary transformation in gender relations. Additionally, most studies have focused on the social aspects of the activities of women. Few of them have focused on the ecological aspects of gender-based resource use. All different resource use by diverse stakeholders, including the pre- and post-harvest activities of women and the social and ecological impacts of those activities, should be considered as a part of the whole coastal resource use of the communities rather than as individual activities. It would be possible to understand the complete picture of social-ecological systems and promote gender-responsive fishery policies with such actions (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1
figure 1

Strengths and weaknesses of previous studies on gender aspects of Japanese coastal fisheries and expected opportunities and threats from strengths and weaknesses

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Early development efforts worldwide predominantly focused on women. Development organizations recognized that targeting women as exclusive beneficiaries had the potential to marginalize men and oversimplify the intricate dynamics of gender roles within society. Consequently, a shift occurred around 1995, transitioning from women-centric programs to more inclusive gender programs (Williams et al. 2002). This shift has also influenced the shift in research focus from women to gender. However, in the context of Japanese research on coastal fisheries, gender has not yet replaced women as the primary subject of study. Nevertheless, Miki (2021) employs the term “gender” to imply the necessity of transforming gender norms within fishing communities, and there are indications that Japanese research is gradually transitioning its focus from women to encompass a broader understanding of gender.

Future research topics with gender aspects on Japanese coastal fisheries

Most studies on the gender aspects of Japanese coastal fisheries have been in anthropologies or socio-economics, focusing on women in coastal fisheries. These studies have played a vital role in making the activities and contributions of women, which are often underrecognized, more visible and providing support to women in policies. On the other hand, to properly understand the complete picture of the social-ecological systems of coastal resource use, it is necessary not only to focus on specific gender groups but also to conduct comprehensive studies on gender-differentiated resource use, relationships, and differences among all gender groups engaged in coastal use of the communities and their impacts both on social aspects and ecological aspects. Based on the identified features of previous studies of Japan, we propose three future research topics on Japanese coastal fisheries with a gender lens.

(1) Studies on the social-ecological system of coastal fisheries with a gender lens

Previous studies have often focused on the activities of women and have not analyzed the direct and indirect impacts of gender-differentiated resource use by women and men on society and ecosystems. For example, in areas where women also practice capture fisheries or gleaning, a gender difference in target species and fishing grounds has been studied through interviews and resource mapping (Furkon et al. 2020). In these cases, the impact of the harvesting of women on fish stock, which has tended to be underrecognized, has been studied through resource monitoring (Frocklin et al. 2014). A comprehensive understanding of the social-ecological system not only of capturing fisheries by men but also the harvesting of women, pre- and post-harvest activities will correctly show how those activities interrelate with societies and ecosystems of and around the communities. It will also provide imperative insights into challenges, strengths, knowledge, and networks that can be utilized to innovate sustainable coastal resource use in communities.

(2) Studies on gender-differentiated impacts of fishery policies

Gender-responsive policies are essential for securing sustainable small-scale fisheries (FAO 2015). In Japan, the bill for the largest-scale amendment to the Fisheries Act was passed in 2018, 70 years after its establishment. As for coastal fisheries, the order of priority for licensing fixed gear fishery rights (for conducting set-net fisheries) and demarcated fishing rights (for conducting aquaculture/mariculture) was abolished. At the same time, there were no significant changes in the common fishing rights, which are continuously licensed to FCAs. This change in the licensing of set-net fishing rights and demarcated fishing rights aims to promote the effective use of underutilized fishing grounds (Fishery Agency 2019). How this revised Fisheries Act affects women and men differently is an important research question for seeing the result of the amendment through a gender lens.

(3) Studies on gender differences in vulnerability and adaptive capacity in coastal areas

Gender differences in vulnerability and adaptive capacity to extreme or unexpected environmental changes, such as climate change, have been recognized (Cohen et al. 2016; Khan et al. 2018). However, studies on gender differences in vulnerability or adaptive capacity in coastal fishing communities are scarce in Japan. Japanese coastal fisheries have also been seriously affected by changes in available species to catch in the area and ecological changes to marine ecosystems (Makino and Sakurai 2012; Ito et al. 2018; Wada 2020). In addition to the changes in the natural environment, rapid changes in society, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, also affect coastal fishers in Japan (Sugimoto et al. 2022). Studies on gender-differentiated vulnerability and adaptive capacity can help avoid gendered negative impacts of environmental changes on specific gender groups and support the innovative adaptive and sustainable coastal resource use of the communities in policies.

Additionally, Japan has recently implemented initiatives to address gender concerns in coastal fisheries (MAFF (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries) n.d., TBTI Global n.d.). By incorporating research lens into these practical efforts, it would be possible to both address social issues and generate academic knowledge about their impacts. Studying how these women-focused programs influence the entire fishing community, including males, would provide valuable insights into the gender perspective of Japanese fishery policy. This research would contribute to a better understanding of gender dynamics in Japanese fisheries and shed fresh light on the gender viewpoint of Japanese fishery policy.

Studies to make women in fisheries visible and policies to support women in fisheries are certainly needed since women are often underrecognized in this sector. However, research and policies focusing only on specific gender groups may identify or solve limited parts of the issues related to limited stakeholders in coastal resource use. Research on different gender groups should be conducted to support policies considering the gender-differentiated environment surrounding all stakeholders. The three research topics proposed in this paper aim to identify differences and relations among all gender groups relevant to fisheries in targeted areas. The future implementation of these studies will avoid the negative impacts on specific gender groups and provide critical insights for innovating sustainable and equitable coastal resource use by exploring gender-based knowledge, networks, and opportunities that have not been fully utilized.