Abstract
In recent years, the development of nanoparticle materials for water treatment has received great attention. From an industrial technological view point, the application of nanomaterials in the twenty-first century for water treatment will be the focal point of advanced materials design, processing and progress. In this context, the potential utilisation of different types of flocculants to clean up contaminated water becomes important to address the tremendous increase of water pollution resulting from continued high-level global industrialisation. A number of researchers have investigated the effectiveness of various nanoflocculants for this purpose. Although these nanoflocculants have been reported to successfully treat contaminated water, their flocculation performances are different. To the best of our knowledge, there is no review article which summarises the application and performance of nanoflocculants in the treatment of water containing various types of contaminants. This review summarises the recent development of a wide range of nanoflocculants for the treatment of water polluted particularly by heavy metals, dyes and bacteria. The influence of physicochemical properties of nanoflocculants upon their performance and optimum flocculation conditions is discussed in detail. This review will provide a useful source of information for researchers working on the advancement of cost-effective and environmentally friendly nanoflocculants.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abbott Chalew TE, Ajmani GS, Huang H, Schwab KJ (2013) Evaluating nanoparticle breakthrough during drinking water treatment. Environ Health Perspect 121(10):1161–1166
Abdullah AM, Hamidah H, Alam MZ (2017) Research progress in bioflocculants from bacteria. Int Food Res J 24(Suppl):S402–S409
ADB (2012) Asian Development Bank: water operational plan 2011–2020. Mandaluyong City, Philippines
Agunbiade MO, Pohl CH, Ashafa AOT (2016) A review of the application of bioflocculants in wastewater treatment. Pol J Environ Stud 25(4):1381–1389
Ajao V, Bruning H, Rijnaarts H, Temmink H (2018) Natural flocculants from fresh and saline wastewater: comparative properties and flocculation performances. Chem Eng J 349:622–632
Akbulut O, Mace CR, Martinez RV, Kumar AA, Nie Z, Patton MR, Whitesides GM (2012) Separation of nanoparticles in aqueous multiphase systems through centrifugation. Nano Lett 12(8):4060–4064
Akhlaghi SP, Zaman M, Mohammed N, Brinatti C, Batmaz R, Berry R, Loh W, Tam KC (2015) Synthesis of amine functionalized cellulose nanocrystals: optimization and characterization. Carbohydr Res 409:48–55
Albrecht A (1972) Disposal of alum sludges. J Am Water Works Assoc 64(1):46–52
Almarasy AA, Azim SA, Ebeid E-ZM (2019) The application of hematite (α-Fe2O3) nanoparticles in coagulation and flocculation processes of River Nile Rosetta branch surface water. SN Appl Sci 1:6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-018-0006-y
Alqadami AA, Naushad M, Abdalla MA, Ahamad T, ALOthman ZA, Alshehri SM, Ghfar AA (2017) Efficient removal of toxic metal ions from wastewater using a recyclable nanocomposite: a study of adsorption parameters and interaction mechanism. J Clean Prod 156:426–436
Anjum M, Miandad R, Waqas M, Gehany F, Barakat MA (2019) Remediation of wastewater using various nano-materials. Arab J Chem 12(8):4897–4919
Aqel A, El-Nour KMMA, Ammar RAA, Al-Warthan A (2012) Carbon nanotubes, science and technology part (I) structure, synthesis and characterisation. Arab J Chem 5(1):1–23
Ben Rebah F, Mnif W, Siddeeg M (2018) Microbial flocculants as an alternative to synthetic polymers for wastewater treatment: a review. Symmetry 10(11):556
Bharath G, Alhseinat E, Ponpandian N, Khan MA, Siddiqui MR, Ahmed F, Alsharaeh EH (2017) Development of adsorption and electrosorption techniques for removal of organic and inorganic pollutants from wastewater using novel magnetite/porous graphene-based nanocomposites. Sep Purif Technol 188:206–218
Bharti S (2019) A critical review on flocculants and flocculation. Non-Metallic Mater Sci 01(01):11–21
Biener J, Wittstock A, Baumann T, Weissmüller J, Bäumer M, Hamza A (2009) Surface chemistry in nanoscale materials. Materials 2(4):2404–2428
Blanco A, Monte MC, Campona C, Balea A, Merayo N, Negro C (2018) Nanocellulose for industrial use. Handbook of nanomaterials for industrial applications, pp 74–126
Boczkaj G, Fernandes A (2017) Wastewater treatment by means of advanced oxidation processes at basic pH conditions: a review. Chem Eng J 320:608–633
Borchate SS, Kulkarni GS, Kore VS, Kore SV (2014) A review on applications of coagulation-flocculation and ballast flocculation for water and wastewater. Int J Innov Eng Technol 4(4):216–223
Business Wire (2018) Membrane filtration (RO, MF, UF, NF) market-global forecast to 2023-ResearchAndMarkets.com. https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20180427005646/en/Membrane-Filtration-RO-MF-UF-NF-Market. Accessed Sept 2019
Business Wire (2019) Global activated carbon market 2019–2025: size, share&trends analysis&outlook-ResearchAndMarkets.com. https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20190619005388/en/Global-Activated-Carbon-Market-2019-2025-Size-Share. Accessed Sept 2019
Crini G, Lichtfouse E (2019) Advantages and disadvantages of techniques used for wastewater treatment. Environ Chem Lett 17(1):145–155
Eyley S, Vandamme D, Lama S, Van den Mooter G, Muylaert K, Thielemans W (2015) CO2 controlled flocculation of microalgae using pH responsive cellulose nanocrystals. Nanoscale 7(34):14413–14421
FAO (2016). AQUASTAT main database, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/data/query/index.html?lang=en. Accessed Sept 2019
Farid MS, Shariati A, Badakhshan A, Anvaripour B (2013) Using nano-chitosan for harvesting microalga Nannochloropsis sp. Bioresour Technol 131:555–559
Gehrke I, Geiser A, Somborn-Schulz A (2015) Innovations in nanotechnology for water treatment. Nanotechnol Sci Appl 8:1–17
Ghernaout B, Ghernaout D, Saiba A (2010) Algae and cyanotoxins removal by coagulation/flocculation: a review. Desalin Water Treat 20:133–143
Hargreaves AJ, Vale P, Whelan J, Alibardi L, Constantino C, Dotro G, Cartmell E, Campo P (2018) Impacts of coagulation-flocculation treatment on the size distribution and bioavailability of trace metals (Cu, Pb, Ni, Zn) in municipal wastewater. Water Res 128:120–128
He M, Cho B-U, Lee YK, Won JM (2016) Utilizing cellulose nanofibril as an eco-friendly flocculant for filler flocculation in papermaking. BioResources 11(4):10296–10313
Higgins MW, Shakeel Rahmaan A, Devarapali RR, Shelke MV, Jha N (2018) Carbon fabric based solar steam generation for waste water treatment. Sol Energy 159:800–810
HPS AK, Saurabh CK, Adnan AS, Nurul Fazita MR, Syakir MI, Davoudpour Y, Rafatullah M, Abdullah CK, Haafiz MKM, Dungani R (2016) A review on chitosan-cellulose blends and nanocellulose reinforced chitosan biocomposites: properties and their applications. Carbohydr Polym 150:216–226
Jagaba AH, Latiff AAA, Umaru I, Abubakar S, Lawal IM (2016) Treatment of palm oil mill effluent (POME) by coagulation-flocculation using different natural and chemical coagulant: a review. J Mech Civ Eng 13(6):67–75
Jarvis P, Jefferson B, Gregory J, Parsons SA (2005) A review of floc strength and breakage. Water Res 39(14):3121–3137
Joseph L, Boateng LK, Flora JRV, Park Y-G, Son A, Badawy M, Yoon Y (2013) Removal of bisphenol A and 17α-ethinyl estradiol by combined coagulation and adsorption using carbon nanomaterials and powdered activated carbon. Sep Purif Technol 107:37–47
Jun LY, Mubarak NM, Yee MJ, Yon LS, Bing CH, Khalid M, Abdullah EC (2018) An overview of functionalised carbon nanomaterial for organic pollutant removal. J Ind Eng Chem 67:175–186
Kamari A, Pulford ID, Hargreaves JSJ (2015) Biodegradation of chitosan and its effect on metal bioavailability. Environ Sci Pollut Res 22(3):1919–1930
Kumar V, Othman N, Asharuddin S (2017) Application of natural coagulants to treat wastewater—a review. MATEC Web Conf 103:06016
Kumari S, Kumar Annamereddy SH, Abanti S, Kumar Rath P (2017) Physicochemical properties and characterization of chitosan synthesized from fish scales, crab and shrimp shells. Int J Biol Macromol 104:1697–1705
Lai M, Liu P, Lin H, Luo Y, Li H, Wang X, Sun R (2016) Interaction between chitosan-based clay nanocomposites and cellulose in a chemical pulp suspension. Carbohydr Polym 137:375–381
Laux P, Tentschert J, Riebeling C, Braeuning A, Creutzenberg O, Epp A, Fessard V, Haas KH, Haase A, Hund-Rinke K, Jakubowski N, Kearns P, Lampen A, Rauscher H, Schoonjans R, Störmer A, Thielmann A, Mühle U, Luch A (2018) Nanomaterials: certain aspects of application, risk assessment and risk communication. Arch Toxicol 92(1):121–141
Lee KE, Morad N, Teng TT, Poh BT (2012) Development, characterization and the application of hybrid materials in coagulation/flocculation of wastewater: a review. Chem Eng J 203:370–386
Lee CS, Robinson J, Chong MF (2014a) A review on application of flocculants in wastewater treatment. Process Saf Environ 92(6):489–508
Lee CS, Chong MF, Robinson J, Binner E (2014b) A review on development and application of plant-based bioflocculants and grafted bioflocculants. Ind Eng Chem Res 53(48):18357–18369
Lei Y (2013) Carbon nanotube flocculation as a green nanoseparation. Chem Lett 42(1):11–13
Leshuk T, Holmes AB, Ranatunga D, Chen PZ, Jiang Y, Gu F (2018) Magnetic flocculation for nanoparticle separation and catalyst recycling. Environ Sci Nano 5:509–519
Li Z, Wang B, Qin X, Wang Y, Liu C, Shao Q, Wang N, Zhang J, Wang Z, Shen C, Guo Z (2018) Superhydrophobic/superoleophilic polycarbonate/carbon nanotubes porous monolith for selective oil adsorption from water. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 6(11):13747–13755
Liu J, Li P, Xiou H, Zhang Y, Shi X, Lü X, Chen X (2015) Understanding flocculation mechanism of graphene oxide for organic dyes from water: experimental and molecular dynamics simulation. AIP Adv 5(11):117151
Liu T, Ding E, Xue F (2017) Polyacrylamide and poly(N,N-dimethylacrylamide) grafted cellulose nanocrystals as efficient flocculants for kaolin suspension. Int J Biol Macromol 103:1107–1112
Lu H, Wang J, Stoller M, Wang T, Bao Y, Hao H (2016) An overview of nanomaterials for water and wastewater treatment. Adv Mater Sci Eng 2016:1–10
Lü T, Zhang S, Qi D, Zhang D, Zhao H (2018) Enhanced demulsification from aqueous media by using magnetic chitosan-based flocculant. J Colloid Interface Sci 518:76–83
Ma J, Fu K, Shi J, Sun Y, Zhang X, Ding L (2016) Ultraviolet-assisted synthesis of polyacrylamide-grafted chitosan nanoparticles and flocculation performance. Carbohydr Polym 151:565–575
Ma J, Fu X, Jiang L, Zhu G, Shi J (2018) Magnetic flocculants synthesized by Fe3O4 coated with cationic polyacrylamide for high turbid water flocculation. Environ Sci Pollut Res 25(26):25955–25966
Mahamuni NN, Adewuyi YG (2010) Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) involving ultrasound for waste water treatment: a review with emphasis on cost estimation. Ultrason Sonochem 17(6):990–1003
Manafi MR, Manafi P, Agarwal S, Bharti AK, Asif M, Gupta VK (2017) Synthesis of nanocomposites from polyacrylamide and graphene oxide: application as flocculants for water purification. J Colloid Interface Sci 49:505–510
Mishra S, Usha Rani G, Sen G (2012) Microwave initiated synthesis and application of polyacrylic acid grafted carboxymethyl cellulose. Carbohydr Polym 87(3):2255–2262
Mohammed N, Grishkewich N, Tam KC (2018) Cellulose nanomaterials: promising sustainable nanomaterials for application in water/wastewater treatment processes. Environ Sci Nano 5:623–658
Muralikrishna IV, Manickam V (2017) Wastewater treatment technologies, chap 12. Environmental management: science and engineering for industry. Elsevier, Massachusetts, pp 248–293
Nadella M, Sharma R, Chellam S (2020) Fit-for-purpose treatment of produced water with iron and polymeric coagulant for reuse in hydraulic fracturing: temperature effects on aggregation and high-rate sedimentation. Water Res 170:115330
Nguyen NHA, Padil VVT, Slaveykova VI, Černík M, Ševců A (2018) Green synthesis of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles and their effect on the unicellular alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Nanoscale Res Lett 13:159
Nidheesh PV, Zhou M, Oturan MA (2018) An overview on the removal of synthetic dyes from water by electrochemical advanced oxidation processes. Chemosphere 197:210–227
Noor MHM, Ngadi N, Luing WS (2018) Synthesis of magnetic cellulose as flocculant for pre-treatment of anaerobically treated palm oil mill effluent. Chem Eng Trans 63:589–594
Nyzhnyk T (2017) High efficiency titanium coagulants for water treatment. Proceedings of the 1st annual conference of technology transfer: fundamental principles and innovative technical solutions, pp 54-56. https://doi.org/10.21303/2585-6847.2017.00486
Okaiyeto K, Nwodo UU, Okoli SA, Mabinya LV, Okoh AI (2016) Implications for public health demands alternatives to inorganic and synthetic flocculants: bioflocculants as important candidates. Microbiologyopen 5(2):177–211
Othmani B, Khadhraoui M (2018) Plant extracts as coagulants-flocculants for wastewater treatment: a short review. In: Kallel A, Ksibi M, Dhia HB, Khélifi N (eds) Recent Advances in environmental science from the euro-mediterranean and surrounding regions. Advances in science technology & innovation. Springer, Cham, pp 1227–1229
Özdemir K (2016) The use of carbon nanomaterials for removing natural organic matter in drinking water sources by a combined coagulation process. Nanomater Nanotechnol 6:1–12
Pal S, Patra AS, Ghorai S, Sarkar AK, Das R, Sarkar S (2015) Modified guar gum/SiO2: development and application of a novel hybrid nanocomposite as a flocculant for the treatment of wastewater. Environ Sci Water Res Technol 1:84–95
Pankratz TM (2000) Evaporation—a wastewater treatment alternative. Water and Wastes Digest. https://www.wwdmag.com/sludge-treatment/evaporation-wastewater-treatment-alternative. Accessed Sept 2019
Pavel K, Nikolay K, Oleg F (2017) Matrix-isolated nanocomposites–alumina–silicon and iron-silicon flocculants-coagulants. J Phys Sci Appl 7(2):36–41
Pivarčiová L, Rosskopfová O, Galamboš M, Rajec P (2014) Sorption of nickel on chitosan. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 300(1):361–366
Quinlan PJ, Tanvir A, Tam KC (2015) Application of the central composite design to study the flocculation of an anionic azo dye using quaternized cellulose nanofibrils. Carbohydr Polym 133:80–89
Renault F, Sancey B, Badot P-M, Crini G (2009) Chitosan for coagulation/flocculation processes—an eco-friendly approach. Eur Polym J 45(5):1337–1348
Rezakazemi M, Khajeh A, Mesbah M (2018) Membrane filtration of wastewater from gas and oil production. Environ Chem Lett 16(2):367–388
Rocha J-DR, Rogers RE, Dichiara AB, Capasse RC (2017) Emerging investigators series: highly effective adsorption of organic aromatic molecules from aqueous environments by electronically sorted single-walled carbon nanotubes. Environ Sci Water Res Technol 3(2):203–212
Rui LM, Daud Z, Latif AAA (2012) Treatment of leachate by coagulation-flocculation using different coagulants and polymer: a review. Int J Adv Sci Eng Inf Technol 2:2
Salleh SNAM, Zin NSM, Othman N (2019) A review of wastewater treatment using natural material and its potential as aid and composite coagulant. Sains Malays 48(1):155–164
Sami AJ, Khalid M, Iqbal S, Afzal M, Shakoori AR (2017) Synthesis and application of chitosan-starch based nanocomposite in wastewater treatment for the removal of anionic commercial dyes. Pakistan J Zool 49:21–26
Santos TRT, Silva MF, Nishi L, Vieira AMS, Klein MRF, Andrade MB, Vieira MF, Bergamasco R (2016) Development of a magnetic coagulant based on Moringa oleifera seed extract for water treatment. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23(8):7692–7700
Sari AM, Purnawan IE (2016) The influence of chitosan flocculant on the flocculation of microalgae Chlorella sp. ARPN J Eng Appl Sci 11:8
Savage N, Diallo MS (2005) Nanomaterials and water purification: opportunities and challenges. J Nanopart Res 7(4–5):331–342
Schwaminger SP, Bauer D, Fraga-García P, Wagner FE, Berensmeier S (2017) Oxidation of magnetite nanoparticles: impact on surface and crystal properties. CrystEngComm 19(2):246–255
Shak KPY, Pang YL, Mah SK (2018) Nanocellulose: recent advances and its prospects in environmental remediation. Beilstein J Nanotechnol 9:2479–2498
Simate GS (2015) The treatment of brewery wastewater for reuse by integration of coagulation/flocculation and sedimentation with carbon nanotubes ‘sandwiched’ in a granular filter bed. J Ind Eng Chem 21:1277–1285
Simate GS, Iyuke SE, Ndlovu S, Heydenrych M (2012) The heterogeneous coagulation and flocculation of brewery wastewater using carbon nanotubes. Water Res 46(4):1185–1197
Song J, Zhang F, Huang Y, Keller AA, Tang X, Zhang W, Jia W, Santos J (2018) Highly efficient bacterial removal and disinfection by magnetic barium phosphate nanoflakes with embedded iron oxide nanoparticles. Environ Sci Nano 5(6):1341–1349
Suopajärvi T, Liimatainen H, Hormi O, Niinimäki J (2013) Coagulation–flocculation treatment of municipal wastewater based on anionized nanocelluloses. Chem Eng J 231:59–67
Suresh A, Grygolowicz-Pawlak E, Pathak S, Poh LS, Majid MBA, Dominiak D, Bugge TV, Gao X, Ng WJ (2018) Understanding and optimization of the flocculation process in biological wastewater treatment processes: a review. Chemosphere 210:401–416
Teh CY, Budiman PM, Shak KPY, Wu TY (2016) Recent advancement of coagulation-flocculation and its application in wastewater treatment. Ind Eng Chem Res 55(16):4363–4389
Tian G, Chen Y, Liang Y, Gao Y (2019) Synthesis of nanocomposites from cationic polyacrylamide and modified carbon black: application as flocculants for oily sludge suspension. Appl Organometal Chem 33(1):e4620. https://doi.org/10.1002/aoc.4620
UNWWDR (2019) The United Nation World Development Report 2019: Leaving no one behind. https://www.unwater.org/publications/world-water-development-report-2019/. Accessed Sept 2019
Vajihinejad V, Gumfekar SP, Bazoubandi B, Najafabadi ZR, Soares JBP (2018) Water soluble polymer flocculants: synthesis, characterization, and performance assessment. Macromol Mater Eng 304:1800526
Vandamme D, Foubert I, Fraeye I, Muylaert K (2012) Influence of organic matter generated by Chlorella vulgaris on five different modes of flocculation. Bioresour Technol 124:508–511
Vandamme D, Eyley S, Mooter GVD, Muylaert K, Thielemans W (2015) Highly charged cellulose-based nanocrystals as flocculants for harvesting Chlorella vulgaris. Bioresour Technol 194:270–275
Verma AK, Dash RR, Bhunia P (2012) A review on chemical coagulation/flocculation technologies for removal of colour from textile wastewaters. J Environ Manag 93(1):154–168
Vlasova II, Kapralov AA, Michael ZP, Burkert SC, Shurin MR, Star A, Shvedova AA, Kagan VE (2016) Enzymatic oxidative biodegradation of nanoparticles: mechanisms, significance and applications. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 299:58–69
Wang Z, Wang C, Wang P, Qian J, Hou J, Ao Y, Wu B (2015) The performance of chitosan/montmorillonite nanocomposite during the flocculation and floc storage processes of Microcystis aeruginosa cells. Environ Sci Pollut Res 22(14):11148–11161
Wang T, Yang W-L, Hong Y, Hou Y-L (2016) Magnetic nanoparticles grafted with amino-riched dendrimer as magnetic flocculant for efficient harvesting of oleaginous microalgae. Chem Eng J 297:304–314
Wang D, Yu H, Fan X, Gu J, Ye S, Yao J, Ni Q (2018) High aspect ratio carboxylated cellulose nanofibers crosslinked to robust aerogels for superabsorption—flocculants: paving way from nanoscale to macroscale. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 10(24):20755–20766
Wei H, Gao B, Ren J, Li A, Yang H (2018) Coagulation/flocculation in dewatering of sludge: a review. Water Res 143:608–631
Williams PJLB, Williams Laurens LM (2010) Microalgae as biodiesel and biomass feedstocks: review and analysis of the biochemistry, energetics and economics. Energy Environ Sci 3:554–590
Xu L-H, Patil DS, Yang J, Xiao J (2015) Metal oxide nanostructure: synthesis, properties, and applications. J Nanotechnol 2015:1–2
Yang R, Li H, Huang M, Yang H, Li A (2016) A review on chitosan-based flocculants and their applications in water treatment. Water Res 95:59–89
Yang R, Li D, Li A, Yang H (2018a) Adsorption properties and mechanisms of palygorskite for removal of various ionic dyes from water. Appl Clay Sci 151:20–28
Yang Y, Zhao R, Zhang T, Zhao K, Xioa P, Ma Y, Ajayan PM, Shi G, Chen Y (2018b) Graphene-based standalone solar energy converter for water desalination and purification. ACS Nano 12(1):829–835
Yaser AZ, Nurmin B, Rosalam S (2013) Coagulation/flocculation of anaerobically treated palm oil mill effluent (AnPOME): A review. In: Pogaku R, Bono A, Chu CM (eds) Development in sustainable chemical and bioprocess technology. Springer, Massachusetts, pp 3–9
Yaser AZ, Cassey TL, Hairul MA, Shazwan AS (2014) Current review on the coagulation/flocculation of lignin containing wastewater. Int J Waste Resour 04:153. https://doi.org/10.4172/2252-5211.1000153
Yin H, Liu L, Wang X, Wang T, Zhou Y, Liu B, Shan Y, Wang L, Lü X (2018) A novel flocculant prepared by lignin nanoparticles-gelatin complex from switchgrass for the capture of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. Colloids Surf A 545:51–59
Yoo SS (2018) Operating cost reduction of in-line coagulation/ultrafiltration membrane process attributed to coagulation condition optimization for irreversible fouling control. Water 10(8):1076
Yu H-Y, Zhang D-Z, Lu F-F, Yao J (2016) New approach for single-step extraction of carboxylated cellulose nanocrystals for their use as adsorbents and flocculants. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 4:2632–2643
Yusoff MS, Aziz HA, Zamri MFMA, Suja F, Abdullah AZ, Basri NEA (2018) Floc behavior and removal mechanisms of cross-linked Durio zibethinus starch as a natural flocculant for landfill leachate coagulation-flocculation treatment. Waste Manag 74:362–372
Zaman B (2018) Potential of natural flocculant in coagulation-flocculation wastewater treatment process. E3S Web Conf 73:05006. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20187305006
Zhang M, Li J (2009) Carbon nanotube in different shapes. Mater Today 12:12–18
Zhou X (2016) Cationic cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) for organic and inorganic colloids flocculation. Master’s thesis. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10012/10235
Zhou Y, Franks GV (2006) Flocculation mechanism induced by cationic polymers investigated by light scattering. Langmuir 22:6775–6786
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank the Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Mathematics, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia, for providing research facilities to conduct this research.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of scientific and financial interest.
Additional information
Editorial responsibility: Josef Trögl.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Jumadi, J., Kamari, A., Hargreaves, J.S.J. et al. A review of nano-based materials used as flocculants for water treatment. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 17, 3571–3594 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-020-02723-y
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-020-02723-y