Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

The Influence of Human Milk on Flavor and Food Preferences

  • Food Acceptance and Nutrition in Infants and Young Children (H Coulthard, Section Editor)
  • Published:
Current Nutrition Reports Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Purpose of Review

The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the literature that examines sensory experiences during early feeding practices and the influence human milk has on flavor and food preferences.

Recent Findings

Research suggests that the development of flavor and food preferences begins during the prenatal period through exposure to amniotic fluid and continues in the postnatal period during breastfeeding. Breastfeeding provides an infant with a unique variety of constantly changing chemosensory experiences as human milk contains flavors from foods that are part of the mother’s diet. These early flavor exposures are believed to help with the transition to complementary foods during later infancy and early childhood. Compared to formula-fed infants who are exposed to limited sensory experiences due to its constant flavor, breastfed infants demonstrate greater acceptance of novel foods when they are part of the maternal diet. Studies show that toddlers, preschool, and school-aged children who were breastfed as infants demonstrate more positive acceptance of a wider variety of healthy foods and are more accepting of new foods and are less likely to be picky eaters.

Summary

Infant exposure early in life to a wide variety of flavors from healthy and nutrient-rich foods through amniotic fluid and human milk contributes to an individual’s unique set of taste preferences that can lead to healthier food choices and optimal health.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

Papers of particular interest, published recently, have been highlighted as: • Of importance •• Of major importance

  1. Eidelman AI, Schanler RJ, Johnston M, et al. American Academy of Pediatrics Section on Breastfeeding. Breastfeeding and the use of human milk. Pediatrics. 2012;129:e827496–e841.

    Google Scholar 

  2. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The surgeon general’s call to action to support breastfeeding. Washington, D.C.: U.S: Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Surgeon General; 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Sguassero Y. Optimal duration of exclusive breastfeeding: RHL commentary (last revised: 28 March 2008). The WHO Reproductive Health Library; Geneva: World Health Organization.

  4. Chantry CJ, Eglash A, Labbok M. ABM position on breastfeeding—revised 2015. Breastfeed Med. 2015;10(9):407–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Lessen RL, Kavanaugh K. Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: promoting and supporting breastfeeding. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2015;115(3):444–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Andreas NJ, Kampmann B, Mehring L-DK. Human milk: a review on its composition and bioactivity. Early Hum Dev. 2015;91:629–35.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Ballard O, Morrow AL. Human milk composition: nutrients and bioactive factors. Pediatr Clin N Am. 2013;60(1):49–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Mennella JA. Flavour programming during breastfeeding. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2009;639:113–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Beauchamp GK, Mennella JA. Early flavor learning and its impact on later feeding behavior. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2009;48(suppl):S25–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Eisenstein M. Taste. More than meets the mouth. Nature. 2010; 468:S18-S19.

  11. • Mennella JA. Ontogeny of taste preferences: basic biology and implications for health. Am J Clin Nutr. 2014;99(suppl):704S–11S. This paper provides a comprehensive review on the biology of the chemical senses and the scientific evidence on the influence of sensory experiences early in life

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  12. Trabulsi JC, Mennella JA. Diet, sensitive periods in flavour learning, and growth. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2012;24:219–30.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  13. Birch L. Development of food preferences. Annu Rev Nutr. 1999;19:41–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Nicklaus S, Boggio V, Chabanet C, Issanchou S. A prospective study of food variety seeking in childhood, adolescence and early adult life. Appetite. 2005;44:289–97.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. •• Ventura AK, Worobey J. Early influences on the development of food preferences. Curr Biol. 2013;23(9):R401–8. This paper provides a comprehensive overview on the development of food preferences from the prenatal to early childhood periods

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Marlier L, Schaal B, Soussignan R. Neonatal responsiveness to the odor of amniotic and lacteal fluids. A test of perinatal chemosensory continuity. Child Dev. 1998;69(3):611–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Schaal B, Marlier L, Soussignan R. Human fetuses learn odours from their pregnant mother’s diet. Chem Senses. 2000;25(6):729–37.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Pritchard JA. Deglutition by normal and anencephalic fetuses. Obstet Gynecol. 1965;25:289–97.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Hepper P. Human fetal “olfactory” learning. Int J Prenatal Perinatal Psychol. 1995;2:147–51.

    Google Scholar 

  20. Mennella JA, Jagnow CP, Beauchamp GK. Prenatal and postnatal flavor learning by human infants. Pediatrics. 2001;107(6):e88.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  21. Zhang GH, Chen ML, Liu SS, Zhan YH, Quan Y, Qin YM, Deng SP. Effects of mother’s dietary exposure to acesulfame-K in pregnancy or lactation on the adult offspring’s sweet preference. Chem Senses. 2011;36:763–70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Sylvetsky AC, Gardner AL, Bauman V, Blau JE, Garraffo HM, Walter PJ, Rother KI. Nonnutritive sweeteners in breast milk. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2015;78:1029–32.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Rother KI, Sylvetsky AC, Schiffman SS. Non-nutritive sweeteners in breast milk: perspective on potential implications of recent findings. Arch Toxicol. 2015;89(11):2169–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Mennella JA. Development of food preferences: lessons learned from longitudinal and experimental studies. Food Qual Prefer. 2006;17(7–8):635–7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  25. Mennella JA, Johnson A, Beauchamp GK. Garlic ingestion by pregnant women alters odor of amniotic fluid. Chem Senses. 1995;20:207–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Mennella JA, Beauchamp GK. The effects of repeated exposure to garlic-flavored milk on the nursling’s behavior. Pediatr Res. 1993;34(6):805–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Mennella JA, Beauchamp GK. The human infants’ response to vanilla flavors in mother’s milk and formula. Infant Behav Dev. 1996;19(1):13–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Scheffler L, Sauermann Y, Zeh G, Hauf K, Heinlein A, Sharapa C, Buettner A. Detection of volatile metabolites of garlic in human breast milk. Meta. 2016;6:18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Jensen RG. Handbook of milk composition. NewYork: Academic Press; 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Schwartz C, Chabanet C, Laval C, Issanchou S, Nicklaus S. Breast-feeding duration: influence on taste acceptance over the first year of life. Br J Nutr. 2013;109:1154–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Mennella JA, Forestell CA, Morgan LK, Beauchamp G. Early milk feeding influences taste acceptance and liking during infancy. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009;90(suppl):780S–8S.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  32. McDaniel MR. Off-flavors of human milk. In: Charalambous G, editor. The analysis and control of less desirable flavors in food and beverages. NewYork: Academic Press; 1980.

    Google Scholar 

  33. Alles MS, Scholtens PAMJ, Bindels JG. Current trends in the composition of infant milk formulas. Curr Paediatr. 2004;14:51–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Rassin DK, Sturman JA, Guall GE. Taurine and other free amino acids in milk of man and other mammals. Early Hum Dev. 1978;2:1–13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Agostoni CB, Boniglia C, Riva E, Sanzini E. Free amino acid content in standard infant formulas: comparison with human milk. J Am Coll Nutr. 2000;19:434–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Ninomiya K. Natural occurrence. Food Rev Int. 1998;14:177–211.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Cooke L, Fildes A. The impact of flavour exposure in utero and during milk feeding on food acceptance at weaning and beyond. Appetite. 2011;57:808–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Nevo N, Rubin L, Tamir A, Levine A, Shaoul R. Infant feeding patterns in the first 6 months: an assessment in full-term infants. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2007;45:234–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Grummer-Strawn LM, Scanlon KS, Fein SB. Infant feeding and feeding transitions during the first year of life. Pediatrics. 2008;122(suppl):S36–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Mennella JA, Beauchamp GK. Developmental changes in the acceptance of protein hydrolysate formula. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 1996;17:386–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Mennella JA, Beauchamp GK. Understanding the origin of flavor preferences. Chem Senses. 2005;30(suppl):i242–3.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  42. Cook DA, Sarett HP. Design of infant formulas for meeting normal and special need. In: Lifshitz F, editor. Pediatric nutrition: infant feeding, deficiencies, disease. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc; 1982.

    Google Scholar 

  43. Schiffman SS, Dackis C. Taste of nutrients: amino acids, vitamins, and fatty acids. Percept Psychophys. 1975;17:140–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Forestell CA, Mennella JA. Early determinants of fruit and vegetable acceptance. Pediatrics. 2007;120(6):1247–54.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  45. Maier A, Chabanet C, Schaal B, Leathwood P, Issanchou S. Food-related sensory experience from birth through weaning: contrasted patterns in two nearby European regions. Appetite. 2007;49:429–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Maier AS, Chabanet C, Schaal B, Leathwood P, Issanchou S. Breastfeeding and experience with variety in early weaning increase infants’ acceptance of new foods for up to two months. Clin Nutr. 2008;27:849–57.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Hausner H, Nicklaus S, Issanchou S, Mølgaard C, Møller P. Breastfeeding facilitates acceptance of a novel dietary flavor compound. Clin Nutr. 2010;29:141–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Maier-Noth A, Schaal B, Leathwood P, Issanchou S. The lasting influences of early food-related variety experience: a longitudinal study of vegetable acceptance from 5 months to 6 years in two populations. PLoS One. 2016;11(3):e0151356. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0151356.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  49. Shim JE, Kim J, Mathai RA. Associations of infant feeding practices and picky eating behavior of preschool children. J Am Diet Assoc. 2011;111:1363–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Scott JA, Chih TY, Oddy WH. Food variety at 2 years of age is related to duration of breastfeeding. Nutrients. 2012;4:1464–74.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  51. de Lauzon-Guillain B, Jones L, Oliveira A, Moschonis G, Betoko A, Lopes C, Moreira P, Manios Y, Papadopoulos NG, Emmett P, Charles MA. The influence of early feeding practices on fruit and vegetable intake among preschool children in 4 European birth cohorts. Am J Clin Nutr. 2013;98:804–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Yuan WL, Rigal N, Monnery-Patris S, Chabanet C, Forhan A, Charles MA, de Lauzon-Guillain B. Early determinants of food liking among 5y-old children: a longitudinal study from the EDEN mother-child cohort. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2016;13:20.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  53. Skinner JD, Carruth BR, Bounds W, Ziegler P, Reidy K. Do food-related experiences in the first 2 years of life predict dietary variety in school-aged children? J Nutr Educ Behav. 2002;34:310–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Perrine CG, Galuska DA, Thompson FE, Scanlon KS. Breastfeeding duration is associated with child diet at 6 years. Pediatrics. 2014;134:S50–5.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  55. Abraham EC, Godwin J, Sherriff A, Armstrong J. Infant feeding in relation to eating patterns in the second year of life and weight status in the fourth year. Public Health Nutr. 2012;15(9):1705–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Healthy People 2020. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion accessed November 27, 2016. Available from: https://www.healthypeople.gov/2020/leading-health-indicators/2020-lhi-topics/Nutrition-Physical-Activity-and-Obesity.

  57. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture. 2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans. 8th Edition. December 2015. Available at http://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015/guidelines/

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Health Science, Keene State College, 229 Main Street, Keene, NH, 03435-2903, USA

    Rebecca L. Dunn

  2. Department of Nursing, The Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, 19104-4399, USA

    Rachelle Lessen

Authors
  1. Rebecca L. Dunn
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Rachelle Lessen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Rebecca L. Dunn.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

Rebecca L. Dunn and Rachelle Lessen declare they have no conflict of interest.

Human and Animal Rights and Informed Consent

This article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any of the authors.

Additional information

This article is part of the Topical Collection on Food Acceptance and Nutrition in Infants and Young Children

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Dunn, R.L., Lessen, R. The Influence of Human Milk on Flavor and Food Preferences. Curr Nutr Rep 6, 134–140 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13668-017-0200-3

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13668-017-0200-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation