Abstract
• Introduction
Canopy gap dynamics in old-growth boreal forests is a result of tree mortality caused by insects, diseases, or meteorological phenomena. Canopy gaps improve the possibilities of natural regeneration, and concentrations of decomposed deadwood are often found in these natural openings, which provide specific habitats for many deadwood-dependent species and organisms.
• Methods
Detailed monitoring setups for canopy gaps have been difficult to organize because of the expense of conventional field inventory techniques. Using three-dimensional airborne laser scanning (ALS), canopy gaps can be detected and analyzed even over large sample areas.
• Results
In this study, we show how differences between the canopy gaps of seminatural and managed forests can be determined and how canopy gaps can be categorized using ALS data because the ALS characteristics reflect the variation of vertical structure due to different vegetation or deadwood layers in the canopy gaps.
• Conclusion
The study show promising results on the applicability of ALS data for the automatic identification of canopy gap types and detection of indirect indicator characteristics usable for assessing the naturalness of boreal forests. Moreover, our method bases on the vertical distribution of laser pulses characterizing the vegetation layer, and it can therefore be applied to other vegetation zones where the ALS is applicable.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ackermann F (1999) Airborne laser scanning—present status and future expectations. ISPRS J Photogramm Remote Sens 54:64–67
Ahokas E, Kaartinen H, Yu X, Hyyppä J, Hyyppä H (2003) Analyzing the effects related to the accuracy of laser scanning for digital elevation and target models. Proceedings of the 22nd Symposium of the European Association of Remote Sensing Laboratories: In Geoinformation for European wide Integration, 4–6 June 2002, Prague, pp. 13–18
Axelsson P (2000) DEM generation from laser scanner data using TIN models. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 33:110–117
Bollandsås OM, Hanssen KH, Marthiniussen S, Næsset E (2008) Measures of spatial forest structure derived from airborne laser data are associated with natural regeneration patterns in an uneven-aged spruce forest. For Ecol Manag 255:953–961
Gaulton R, Malthus TJ (2010) LiDAR mapping of canopy gaps in continuous cover forests; a comparison of canopy height model and point cloud based techniques. Int J Remote Sens 31:1193–1211
Hirata Y, Tanaka H, Furuya N (2008) Canopy and gap dynamics analysed using multi-temporal airborne laser scanner data in a temperate deciduous forest. In: Hill R, Rosette J, Suarez J (eds) Proceedings of Silvilaser 2008, 8th International Conference On Lidar Applications In Forest Assessment and Inventory, Edinburgh, Sept 2008, SilviLaser 2008 Organizing Committee, Bournemouth, pp 144–150
Kalliola R (1973) Suomen kasvimaantiede. WSOY, Porvoo, p. 308 (in Finnish)
Koukoulas S, Blackburn GA (2004) Quantifying the spatial properties of forest canopy gaps using Lidar imagery and GIS. Int J Remote Sens 25:3049–3071
Koukoulas S, Blackburn GA (2005) Spatial relationships between tree species and gap characteristics in broad-leaved deciduous woodland. J Veg Sci 16:587–596
Kuuluvainen T (1994) Gap disturbance, ground microtopography, and the regeneration dynamics of boreal coniferous forests in Finland: a review. Ann Zoo Fenn 31:35–51
Liu Q, Hytteborn H (1991) Gap structure, disturbance and regeneration in a primeval Picea abies forest. J Veg Sci 2:391–402
Lyytikäinen A (1991) Kolin luonto, maisema ja kulttuurihistoria. Kolin luonnonsuojelututkimukset. Vesi- ja ympäristöhallituksen monistesarja 308. (in Finnish)
Magurran AE (1988) Ecological diversity and its management. Princeton University Press, Princeton, p 179
Maltamo M, Packalén P, Yu X, Eerikäinen K, Hyyppä J, Pitkänen J (2005) Identifying and quantifying structural characteristics of heterogenous boreal forests using laser scanner data. For Ecol Manag 216:41–50
McCarthy J (2001) Gap dynamics of forest trees: a review with particular attention to boreal forests. Environ Rev 9:1–59
McGarigal K, Cushman SA, Neel MC, Ene E (2002) FRAGSTATS: Spatial Pattern Analysis Program for Categorical Maps. Computer software program produced by the authors at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst. www.umass.edu/landeco/research/fragstats/fragstats.html Accessed 26 Feb 2010
Patton DR (1975) A diversity index for quatifying habitat ‘edge’. Wildl Soc Bull 3:171–173
Pesonen A, Maltamo M, Eerikäinen K, Packalén P (2008) Airborne laser scanning-based prediction of coarse woody debris volumes in a conservation area. For Ecol Manag 255:3288–3296
Rouvinen S, Kouki J (2008) The natural Northern European boreal forests: unifying the concepts, terminologies, and their application. Sil Fenn 42:135–146
Shannon C, Weaver W (1949) The mathematical theory of communication. Univ. Illinois Press, Urbana, p 117
Siitonen J, Martikainen P, Punttila P, Rauh J (2000) Coarse woody debris and stand characteristics in mature managed and old-growth boreal mesic forests in southern Finland. For Ecol Manag 128:211–225
Simpson EH (1949) Measurement of diversity. Nature 163:688
Stiling PB (1996) Ecology: theories and applications, 2nd edn. Prentice Hall International Editions, New Jersey, p 539
St-Onge B, Vepakomma U (2004) Assessing forest gap dynamics and growth using multi-temporal laser-scanner data. In Proc. of Laser-Scanners for Forest and Landscape Assessments—Instruments, Processing Methods and Applications International Conference, Freiburg im Breisgau, 3–6 October 2004, pp 173–178
Vehmas M, Kouki J, Eerikäinen K (2009a) Long-term spatio-temporal dynamics and historical continuity of European aspen (Populus tremula L.) stands in the Koli National Park, eastern Finland. Forestry 82:135–148
Vehmas M, Packalén P, Maltamo M, (2009b) Assessing deadwood existence in canopy gaps by using ALS data. Conference Proceedings, SilviLaser 2009, October 14–16, College Station, Texas USA, pp 137–144
Vepakomma U, St-Onge B, Kneeshaw D (2008) Spatially explicit characterization of boreal forest gap dynamics using multi-temporal lidar data. Rem Sens Environ 112:2326–2340
Zhang K (2008) Identification of gaps in mangrove forests with airborne LIDAR. Rem Sens Environ 112:2309–2325
Zhu J, Matsuzaki T, Lee F, Gonda Y (2003) Effect of gap size created by thinning on seedling emergency, survival and establishment in a costal pine forest. For Ecol Manag 182:339–354
Acknowledgments
This research was conducted in the University of Eastern Finland, and the Joensuu Research Unit of the Finnish Forest Research Institute. It was mainly funded by the Maj and Tor Nessling Foundation and partly supported by the strategic funding of the University of Eastern Finland. We are grateful to these institutions for the resources and funding.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Handling Editor: Barry Gardiner
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Vehmas, M., Packalén, P., Maltamo, M. et al. Using airborne laser scanning data for detecting canopy gaps and their understory type in mature boreal forest. Annals of Forest Science 68, 825–835 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13595-011-0079-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13595-011-0079-x