Abstract
The physico-chemical parameters and WQI of ground water in all five blocks of district Nuapada are calculated by taking ten samples from each block in the month of October 2019. The correlation study between different physicochemical parameters shows significant negative relationships. The WQI of ground water on Boden block is 472.1, Kharial is 366.7, Sinapali block is 319.82, Komana block is 344.1, and Nuapada block is 225.65. Hence the ground water of all these blocks is E-class and not fit for human use. Among all these blocks, the Boden block is highly polluted. The mean value of fluoride in the Boden block is 6.17 mg/l, the Kharial block is 4.79 mg/l, the Sinapali block is 3.93 mg/l, the Komana block is 4.47 mg/l, and the Nuapada block is 2.86 mg/l. Hence, the present study reveals that the groundwater quality of different regions of the district Nuapada is heavily polluted and not suitable for drinking.
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Introduction
Water is treated as a core component, a basic human need, and one of the greatest necessities of life in our ecosystem and the existence of a biological community on the surface of the earth. Clean, uncontaminated water is considered the essence of life and a birth right for everyone, and it must be available to all people in the present world. Safe and uncontaminated drinking water is necessary for all human beings and animals' healthy growth and survival. (Verma et al. 2020; Acharya et al. 2018). The three major categories of human consumption water sources are mainly rainwater, surface water, and groundwater, which are the most viable drinking water sources, specifically in rural and semi–urban areas. Since groundwater is the major source of drinking water throughout the world, we must preserve it in a safe and uncontaminated manner, but today, groundwater is contaminated in many ways due to uncontrolled human activity. (Maskooni et al. 2020; Krishan et al. 2016). The extensive applications of synthetic fertilizers, insecticides, and pesticides increase the percentage of yield of the crops, but in many ways they are harmful to us and our environment. The crops harvested, although high and fulfilling global food security needs, are toxic to human beings and animals. The water containing the pesticides, insecticides is highly dangerous to human health; a part of it infiltrated inside the soil and provided essential nutrients for the healthy growth of plants, a portion of it was added to the underground water sources; and the remaining part was mixed with the nearest surface water bodies. The groundwater is contaminated in numerous ways. The poorly designed septic systems release viruses, bacteria, and chemicals into the groundwater and cause groundwater pollution. The garbage wastes obtained from industry, household, laboratories, cities, hotels, and restaurants are carelessly thrown into nearby areas. During rain, they undergo aerobic biodegradation, and the leachates produced from them percolate ultimately inside the surface of the earth, leading to ground water contamination (Zhang et al. 2019; Chaurasia et al. 2018; Amidalla et al. 2020). Although India has sufficient resources of fresh water, there is a great scarcity of drinking water, particularly in semi-urban and rural areas. Since, the growth of socio-economic factors is highly dependent upon the availability of safe and uncontaminated drinking water, the Govt. of India formed a technology mission in 1987 to get safe and uncontaminated drinking water throughout the country. (Rawat et al. 2018; Olasoji et al. 2019; Badeenezhad et al. 2020). In this work, we try to measure the quality of groundwater to assess its usability for drinking purposes in different blocks of the district Nuapada, but special emphasis is given to fluoride contamination. Groundwater is comparatively less contaminated than surface water. Although groundwater is less contaminated than surface water, in countries like India, where there is massive use of groundwater in industry, irrigation for agricultural purposes releases huge quantities of toxic effluents, which are percolated into the soil and cause groundwater pollution. In some areas, like Nuapada district, where there is a huge deposit of fluoride rich ores and minerals like Fluorspar, cryolite, fluorapatite, and fluorite, etc. present under the surface of the earth, fluoride is naturally added to groundwater by leaching these ores and minerals. Some anthropogenic sources, such as the burning of coal, the processing of aluminium ore, the making of steel, and some fertilizer industries, are the cause of the increase in concentration of fluoride in the groundwater through the leaching of waste materials from these industries. If the fluoride concentration is beyond the permissible limit, then it is the cause of fluorosis disease, and a lower concentration is the cause of the dental caries problem. (Raj and Shaji 2016; Keesari et al. 2016; Rabindranath et al. 2019; Lingaswamy et al. 2016).
Study area
Nuapada district is one of the major districts of western Odisha, India, and is in the latitudes of 20° 0′ N and 21° 5′ N, and in the longitudes of 82° 20′ E and 82° 40′ E. Nuapada has an area of 3407.5 km2 and a population of about 606,490 according to the 2011–2020 census. It is very near the state of Chhattisgarh and surrounded by different districts: Kalahandi, Bolangir, and Bargarh. Nuapada district consists of five different blocks named Sinapali, Khariar, Boden, Komna, and Nuapada. It contains a broad tropical plant life of about 4000 ft (1200 m) in different plateaus. This district is rich in mining products, mainly laterite, graphite, and bauxite. In Nuapada district, industrialization is not presently developed due to scarcity of water and lack of communication facilities. Hence, the economy of this district is mainly dependent upon agriculture and forest resources.
Rice is the major agricultural product in the whole Nuapada district. All forests are situated in the dry deciduous forest zone.
The district of Nuapada is nearer to the district of Kalahandi, where there is a great scarcity of agricultural drought. Due to continuous suffering from drought, the surface water resource is very limited in Nuapada district, and people mostly depend on groundwater resources (Das et al. 2015a, b; Meher et al., 2019; Das et al. 2000). The different blocks of district Nuapada were reflected in the location map (Fig. 1).
Location map of the study area (Nuapada district)
Materials and methods
Sample collection
The sampling locations of the five different blocks, such as Boden, Khariar, Sinapali, Komna, and Nuapada, consist of mainly semi-urban and rural areas, and ten ground water samples are collected from various important locations within each block. The samples were collected within 2–3 days before testing in the laboratory. The sample water was collected in a one-liter clean polyethylene bottle from five different blocks for a total of 50 samples. In this study, the quality of groundwater was measured in terms of physiochemical parameters such as conductivity, pH, fluoride, chloride, dissolved oxygen, total dissolved solids, sodium, potassium, salinity, etc. The methodology of analysis was carried out using the following methods:
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All the analysis was done as per the standard analytical procedure (APHA 2012).
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pH was measured by an electrometric method using a suitable pH meter.
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Electrical conductivity was measured by an EC meter.
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Hardness was calculated by the EDTA titration method.
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The analysis of dissolved oxygen was done by Winkler’s iodometric method.
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The analysis of chlorides was done by argentometric titration.
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Fluoride analysis was done by using a fluoride meter.
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Salinity was measured using a digital salinity meter.
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Sodium and potassium were tested in the Dept. of Earth Science, Sambalpur University by using a flame photometer. (Bureau of Indian Standards 1998)
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The collected samples are analyzed in the laboratories of the Department of Chemistry, the Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT, Burla, and the Department of Earth Science, Sambalpur University within a week.
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The standard value of water quality parameters according to the WHO is presented in Table 1
All the samples are collected from various tube wells and borewells (Table 2).
Results and discussion
The different physical and chemical parameters of the collected sample of the Groundwater from different blocks of Nuapada district are reflected in the Tables 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7
Calculation of water quality index (WQI)
The WQI is an important parameter, which predicts the quality of any water sample by the weighted mean method and is calculated by taking the data of physico-chemical parameters of the collected water samples. This calculation was based on the following derivation of formula: (Chaurasiaet al. 2018).
(1) To calculate the quality rate (Qi) the formula used is given below in Eq. (1)
where V0 = weighted mean of different parametersVi = Optimal acceptable value.Vi = 0, for all parameters except pH and DO.Vs = Standard acceptable limit of parameter or ideal value of the parameters.
2) Calculation of relative unit weight (Wi) is given as follows: -
(Wi) α 1/Si or Wi = K/Si
K = 1/Σ1/Si.Where Si = Standard value of a particular parameter.
K = The proportionality constant.
3) WQI = ΣWi Qi/ΣWi (Prasad et al. 2019; Betis et al. 2020; Chandra et al. 2017).
The Table 8 indicates the different classification of water as per the guidelines selected by WHO. The WQI of Boden block, Khariar block, Sinapali block, Komna block, Nuapada block are shown in Tables 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13 respectively.
Water quality index of different blocks of Nuapada District
Figure 2 reflects the WQI of groundwater in different blocks of Nuapada district and finds that although the water in all the blocks is heavily contaminated by fluoride, the water quality in the Boden block is worst in comparison to other blocks.
WQI of different blocks of Nuapada district
In the Boden block, the pH ranges from 8.09 (S1) to 7.13 (S7) with an average value of 7.539, but the standard value is 6.5–8.5. The EC value varies from119.9 (S5) to 103.4 µmho/cm(S3) with an average value of 110.9 µmho/cm, but the standard value is 400 µmho/cm. Fluoride ranges from 9.4 (S1) to 2.4 mg/L (S5) but the standard permissible limit is 0.5–1.0 mg/L. The chloride concentration varies from 52.66 (S1) to 30.48 mg/l (S5) with an average value of 43.97 mg/l, but the standard permissible limit is 250 mg/l. The hardness varies from 228.2 (S4) to 145.8 mg/l (S3) with an average value of 198.79 mg/l, and the standard value is 200 mg/l. DO ranges from 8.3 (S5) to 5.4 mg/l (S3) with an average of 7.32 mg/l, and the standard value is 10 mg/l. The TDS value ranges from 661 (S3) to 323 mg/l S1) with an average of 427.7 mg/l, and the standard value is 500 mg/l. Sodium ranges from 9.4 (S1) to 6.6 mg/l (S2), and potassium is 8.3 mg/l (S8) to 6.3 mg/l (S5) with an average of 7.1 mg/l. Salinity is 94 PSU (S3) to 59 PSU (S4), with an average of 74.8 PSU and a standard value of 100 PSU. All the parameters are almost within the permissible limit, according to the WHO, except fluoride, which is much higher than the permissible limit. The WQI value of the groundwater on this block was found to be 478.32 (above 100) and belongs to class E. Hence, the quality of the water is very poor and totally unfit for human consumption.
In the Khariar block, pH ranges from 7.9 (S5) to 6.24 (S1) with an average value of 6.94. The EC ranges from 116.4 (S2) to 102.4 µmho/cm (S8) with an average value of 110.43 µmho/cm. Fluoride ranges from 7.3 (S1) to 2.3 mg/l (S5) with an average value of 4.79 mg/l. The chloride concentration varies from 58.7 (S8) to 31.24 mg/l (S4), with an average value of 44.78 mg/l. The hardness varies from 324.4 (S1) to 132.4 mg/l (S5), with an average value of 183.68 mg/l. DO ranges from 9.0 (S4) to 6.3 mg/l (S2) with an average of 7.58 mg/l. The TDS value ranges from 426 (S1) to 196 mg/l (S2), with an average of 333.3 mg/l. Sodium ranges from 9.1 (S4) to 6.3 mg/l (S3) with an average of 7.34 mg/l, and potassium ranges from 7.4 (S8) to 5.3 mg/l (S1) with an average of 6.52 mg/l. Salinity is 96 PSU (S1) to 65 PSU (S2), with an average of 84.7 PSU. All the groundwater parameters are within the permissible limit, according to WHO, except fluoride. The value of WQI of the groundwater in this block was calculated to be 376.92(above 100), which falls under the category of E-class. Although the mean value of fluoride and WQI is less than that of the Boden block, it is still unfit for drinking purposes.
In the Sinapali block, pH ranges from 8.2 (S2) to 6.8 (S4) with an average value of 7.59. The EC ranges from 119.2 (S4) to 104.6 µmho/cm (S7), with an average value of 110.3µmho/cm. Fluoride ranges from 6.4 (S1) to 1.3 mg/l (S3) with an average value of 3.93 mg/l. The chloride concentration varies from 72.1 (S7) to 42.7 mg/l (S3) with an average value of 57.76 mg/l. The hardness varies from 174.8 (S1) to 132.4 mg/l (S5) with an average value of 156.2 mg/l. DO ranges from 9.0 /l (S1) to 4.4 mg/l (S3) with an average of 7.35 mg/l. The TDS value ranges from 367 (S3) to 123 mg/l (S4) with an average of 249.6 mg/l. Sodium ranges from 9.5 (S2) to 5.3 mg/l (S4) with an average of 7.63 mg/l, and potassium ranges from 7.6 (S9) to 4.9 mg/l (S2) with an average of 6.62 mg/l. Salinity is 90 PSU (S2) to 62 PSU (S5), with an average of 75.0 PSU. All the groundwater parameters are within the permissible limit, according to WHO, except fluoride. The WQI value of the groundwater on this block was found to be 313.218 (above 100), which is in the E-class category, the quality of the water is very poor and unfit for drinking purposes.
In Komna Block, pH ranges from 7.8 (S4) to 6.2 (S1) with an average value of 6.94. The EC ranges from 113.0 (S8) to 95.4 µmho/cm (S3), with an average value of 108.2µmho/cm. Fluoride ranges from 6.2 (S5) to 2.2 mg/l (S2) with an average value of 4.47 mg/l. The chloride concentration varies from 59.5 (S10) to 24.9 mg/l (S2), with an average value of 45.52 mg/l. The hardness varies from 265.5 (S4) to 120.5 mg/l (S3) with an average value of 181.63 mg/l. DO ranges from 8.2 (S2) to 6.2 mg/l (S5) with an average of 7.19 mg/l. The TDS value ranges from 430 (S1) to 145 mg/l (S3) with an average of 342.5 mg/l. Sodium ranges from 9.0 (S3) to 5.3 mg/l (S1) with an average of 7.06 mg/l, and potassium ranges from 8.0 (S4) to 4.9 mg/l (S1) with an average of 6.63 mg/l. Salinity is 89 PSU (S2) to 59 PSU(S5) with an average of 70.1 PSU. All the groundwater parameters are within the permissible limit of the WHO, except fluoride. The WQI of the groundwater on this block was found to be 352.5532(above 100), which is in the class E category, indicating that the quality of the water is very poor and unfit for drinking purposes.
In the Nuapada block, pH ranges from 8.2 (S4) to 6.3 (S9) with an average value of 7.13. The EC ranges from 106.4 (S9) to 67.3 µmho/cm (S3), with an average value of 94.31µmho/cm. Fluoride ranges from 4.1 (S9) to 2.1 mg/l (S1) with an average value of 2.86 mg/l. The chloride concentration varies from 57.7 (S5) to 39.2 mg/l (S4) with an average value of 44.49 mg/l. The hardness varies from 280.2 (S1) to 168.4 mg/l (S4) with an average value of 192.98 mg/l. DO ranges from 9.0 (S6) to 6.9 mg/l (S2) with an average of 7.99 mg/l. The TDS value ranges from 523 (S3) to 281 mg/l (S1) with an average of 386.2 mg/l. Sodium ranges from 9.5 (S5) to 4.7 mg/l (S2) with an average of 7.13 mg/l, and potassium ranges from 7.1 (S3) to 5.3 mg/l (S6) with an average of 6.12 mg/l. Salinity ranges from 90 PSU (S1) to 58 PSU (S10) with an average of 71.6 PSU. All the groundwater parameters are within the permissible limit of the WHO, except fluoride. The value of the WQI of the groundwater on this block was found to be 233.1593 (above 100). Although it is less in comparison to other blocks, it still belongs to Class E, indicating that the quality of the water is very poor and unfit for drinking purposes.
Fluoride contamination
Fluoride is considered a potential ion for contamination of groundwater, and it makes the groundwater unfit for drinking. Fluoride is the only ion, that causes health hazards in 25 countries throughout the globe. Fluoride at least 0.6 mg/l is essential for stronger bones and teeth, but if the concentration exceeds 1.5 mg/l, it causes prolonged dental fluorosis and skeletal fluorosis, which cause bone and tooth weakness and are fatal to our health. The high and low concentrations of fluoride in the groundwater are due to anthropogenic or natural sources, or sometimes the combined effect of both. The natural contamination is due to the geological condition of the inner regions of the earth (Bashir et al. 2013; Hussain et al. 2010). The district of Nuapada has almost no mines or industrial areas, therefore, the excessively high concentration of fluoride in the ground water is due to the presence of fluoride rich rocks and minerals such as apatite, biotite, fluorite, and hornblende present under the surface of the earth's crust and partly to fertilizers added to the agricultural lands (Das et al. 2015a, b).
Due to the process of leaching fluoride from the rocks and minerals, it is mixed with groundwater, and the water becomes rich in fluoride concentration. The maximum fluoride concentration is observed in the Karlakot area of the Boden block (9.4 mg/l). The concentration of fluoride in different blocks of the Nuapada district is represented below.
Correlation and descriptive statistical tables
The experimental data on fluoride is correlative with pH, EC, chloride, and salinity. Table 14 represents the correlation of fluoride with some other parameters such as pH, EC, chloride, and salinity. Except for the Komana block, there is a positive correlation between salinity and all of the blocks in the Nuapada district. In terms of pH, the blocks of Boden, Khariar, and Sinapali show a positive correlation. Only a minor positive correlation exists between fluoride and EC in the Komana and Nuapada blocks (Table 14). Tables 15, 16, 17, 18 and 19 show the descriptive statistics tables for the Nuapada district's Boden, Khariar, Sinapali, Komana, and Nuapada blocks. In this correlation analysis, it was predicted that the fluoride contamination in the drinking water of Nuapada district is almost independent of pH, EC, salinity, and chloride. Figure 3 shows the intensity of fluoride contamination of different blocks of Nuapada district.
Showing the intensity of fluoride contamination of different Blocks of Nuapada district
Boden block
Khariar block
Sinapali block
Komna block
Nuapada block
Conclusions
From the data obtained from the experimental analysis, it was found that all the water quality parameters of the groundwater in different blocks of the district Nuapada are slightly above the limit of the guidelines fixed by WHO, except for fluoride in every part of the district and hardness in some specific areas. The permissible limit of fluoride in groundwater or drinking water is 0.5–1.0 mg/l. From the analysed data, it was found that the fluoride concentration in the district Nuapada, Odisha, ranges from 9.4 mg/l in the Karlakot area of Boden block (maximum) to 1.3 mg/l in the Jampani area of Sinapali block (the minimum), and in most of the areas, the value of fluoride is much higher than the permissible limit fixed by WHO. Most of the tube-wells in this district have been marked red by the Govt. of Odisha and become unusable for drinking and any other human use. From WQI data, it was found that in all the blocks, the ground water belongs to E-class and not suitable for human use. Although some parameters are slightly higher in some specific areas, the major hazard is a high fluoride concentration. Since there are almost no man-made sources of increase in fluoride concentration, it is concluded that the cause of the increase in fluoride is mainly due to the huge deposit of fluoride-rich minerals and ores under the surface of the earth’s crust. Hence, proper defluorination and fluoride mapping must be done in an effective and advanced manner to get pure, uncontaminated, good-quality drinking water and select the fluoride-rich zones. The present study can help with proper management and planning of the existing water resources of district Nuapada for drinking purposes. Fluoride is a significant chemical that cause of significant impact in human health through drinking water. E. coli is a non-pathogenic fluoride resistant, and thermotolerant bacteria. E. coli was identified to be hypersensitive to fluoride. Therefore E. coli can withstand fluoride in any condition. Hence the increase in concentration of fluoride increases the E. coli bacterial concentration. The corelationship data indicates that the fluoride contamination is mostly independent upon the other parameters such as pH, EC, chloride, and alkalinity.
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Swain, P.K., Biswal, T. Assessment of groundwater quality in terms of water quality index (WQI) and fluoride contamination of Nuapada District, Odisha, India. Appl Water Sci 13, 218 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-023-02030-0
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-023-02030-0