Abstract
Karst regions represent fragile landscapes that are particularly vulnerable to environmental changes. The study aims to assess the soil quality in the karst basin of Ioannina, which is located in the north-western region of Greece. Factor analysis was employed to evaluate the concentrations of trace elements in the soil. Additionally, Geographical Information Systems (GIS) was utilized to visualize the spatial distribution of these trace elements and their potential sources in relation to the local geology and land use. The study findings underscored that most of the karst landscape in the research area is comprised of Quaternary deposits and it is predominantly occupied by agricultural land. The soil displays substantial levels of clay and silt, with noticeably elevated concentration of iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), copper (Cu), vanadium (V), and phosphorous (P) compared to the median concentrations observed in European topsoil. The factor analysis is applied to the dataset of elements content in soil to identify the factors controlling their distribution. Factor 1 involves the geological contribution and the adsorption of Fe–Ni–Cr–Pb–V and lithium (Li) into clay minerals. Factor 1 may be termed as “lithogenic factor”. The cultivated land and road network showed a significant correlation with the higher positive loadings of Fe, Mn, Pb and Cu for Factor 2 which may be termed “agricultural-road network factor”. Agricultural activities and cultivated land presented a significant correlation with the higher positive loadings of nitrate (NO3−), nitrite (NO2−), organic matter (OM), ammonium (NH4+) and P for Factor 3 which may be termed as “agricultural” factor. The higher positive loadings of Factor 4 suggest a variation in the mechanical properties of the Quaternary deposits and may be termed as “soil texture factor”. Quaternary deposits and agricultural land exhibit a strong spatial relationship with factor scores of each factor. Combining factor analysis and GIS proved to be an effective method for identifying and confirming the sources of elements content in soil.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The data presented in this article are available from the corresponding author.
References
Adamiec E, Jarosz-Krzemińska E, Wieszała R (2016) Heavy metals from non-exhaust vehicle emissions in urban and motorway road dusts. Environ Monit Assess 188:369. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-016-5377-1
Alexakis D (2011) Diagnosis of stream sediment quality and assessment of toxic element contamination sources in East Attica, Greece. Environ Earth Sci 63:1369–1383. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-010-0807-9
Alexakis D (2020a) Suburban areas in flames: dispersion of potentially toxic elements from burned vegetation and buildings. Estimation of the associated ecological and human health risk. Environ Res 183:109153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.109153
Alexakis D (2020b) Contaminated land by wildfire effect on ultramafic soil and associated human health and ecological risk. Land 9(11):409. https://doi.org/10.3390/land9110409
Alexakis D (2021) Multielement contamination of land in the margin of highways. Land 10(3):230. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10030230
Alexakis DE (2022) Applying factor analysis and the CCME water quality index for assessing groundwater quality of an Aegean Island (Rhodes, Greece). Geosciences 12:384. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences12100384
Alexakis D, Kokmotos I, Gamvroula D, Varelidis G (2021a) Wildfire effects on soil quality. Application on a suburban area of West Attica (Greece). Geosci J 25(2):243–253. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12303-020-0011-1
Alexakis DE, Bathrellos GD, Skilodimou HD, Gamvroula DE (2021b) Spatial distribution and evaluation of arsenic and zinc content in the soil of a karst landscape. Sustain Basel 13(12):6976. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13126976
Alexakis DE, Bathrellos GD, Skilodimou HD, Gamvroula DE (2021c) Land suitability mapping using geochemical and spatial analysis methods. Appl Sci 11(12):5404. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11125404
Apeagyei E, Bank MS, Spengler JD (2011) Distribution of heavy metals in road dust along an urban-rural gradient in Massachusetts. Atmos Environ 45:2310–2323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2010.11.015
Appelo C, Postma D (2005) Geochemistry, groundwater and pollution. A.A.Balkema Publishers a member of Taylor&Francis Group plc, Leiden
Arumugam T, Kinattinkara S, Nambron D, Velusamy S, Shanmugamoorthy M, Pradeep T, Mageshkumar P (2022) An integration of soil characteristics by using GIS based Geostatistics and multivariate statistics analysis sultan Batheri block, Wayanad District, India. Urban Clim 46:101339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2022.101339
Bathrellos GD, Skilodimou HD (2022) Estimation of sand and gravel extraction sites. Z Geomorphol 63(2–3):313–328. https://doi.org/10.1127/zfg/2021/0674
Bathrellos GD, Skilodimou HD, Maroukian H (2017a) The significance of tectonism in the glaciations of Greece. Geol Soc Spec Publ 433(1):237–250. https://doi.org/10.1144/SP433
Bathrellos GD, Skilodimou HD, Maroukian H, Gaki-Papanastassiou K, Kouli K, Tsourou T, Tsaparas N (2017b) Pleistocene glacial and lacustrine activity in the southern part of Mount Olympus (central Greece). Area 49(2):137–147. https://doi.org/10.1111/area.12297
Bathrellos GD, Skilodimou HD, Zygouri V, Koukouvelas IK (2021) Landslide: a recurrent phenomenon? Landslide hazard assessment in mountainous areas of central Greece. Z Geomorphol 63(1):95–114. https://doi.org/10.1127/zfg/2021/0670
Chork CY (1990) Unmasking multivariate anomalous observations in exploration geochemical data from sheeted-vein tin mineralisation near Emmaville, N.W.S. Aust J Geochem Explor 37:205–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/0375-6742(90)90027-8
Chork CY, Salminen R (1993) Interpreting geochemical data from Outokumpu, Finland: an MVE-robust factor analysis. J Geochem Explor 48:1–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/0375-6742(93)90079-2
Councell TB, Duckenfield KU, Landa ER, Callender E (2004) Tire-wear particles as a source of zinc to the environment. Environ Sci Technol 38:4206–4214. https://doi.org/10.1021/es034631f
Davis AP, Shokouhian M, Ni S (2001) Loading estimates of lead, copper cadmium and zinc in urban runoff from specific sources. Chemosphere 44:997–1009. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0045-6535(00)00561-0
Doufexi M, Gamvroula DE, Alexakis DE (2022) Elements’ content in stream sediment and wildfire ash of suburban areas in West Attica (Greece). Water 14:310. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14030310
Gavrilescu M, Demnerová K, Aamand J, Agathos S, Fava F (2015) Emerging pollutants in the environment: present and future challenges in biomonitoring, ecological risks and bioremediation. N Biotechnol 32(1):147–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbt.2014.01.001
Gutiérrez F, Parise M, De Waele J, Jourde H (2014) A review on natural and human-induced geohazards and impacts in karst. Earth Sci Rev 138:61–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2014.08.00
He ZL, Yang EX, Stofella JP (2005) Trace elements in agroecosystems and impacts on the environment. J Trace Elem Med Biol 19(2–3):125–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2005.02.010
He G, Zhao X, Yu M (2021) Exploring the multiple disturbances of karst landscape in Guilin World Heritage Site, China. CATENA 203:105349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2021.105349
Herman EK, Toran L, White WB (2012) Clastic sediment transport and storage in fluviokarst aquifers: an essential component of karst hydrogeology. Carbonate Evaporite 27:211–241. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13146-012-0112-7
Hjortenkrans DST, Bergbäck BG, Häggerud AV (2007) Metal emissions from brake linings and tires: case studies of Stockholm, Sweden 1995/1998 and 2005. Environ Sci Technol 41:5224–5230. https://doi.org/10.1021/es070198o
Hou D, O’Connor D, Nathanail P, Tian L, Ma Y (2017) Integrated GIS and multivariate statistical analysis for regional scale assessment of heavy metal soil contamination: a critical review. Environ Pollut 231:1188–1200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.07.021
IGME (Institute of Geology and Mineral Exploration) (1967) Geological maps of Greece, sheet Ioannina, scale 1:50,000
Ioannides K, Stamoulis K, Papachristodoulou C, Tziamou E, Markantonaki C, Tsodoulos I (2015) Distribution of heavy metals in sediment cores of Lake Pamvotis (Greece): a pollution and potential risk assessment. Environ Monit Assess 187:4209. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-014-4209-4
Islam F, Ahmad MN, Janjuhah HT, UllahM IIU et al (2022) Modelling and mapping of soil erosion susceptibility of Murree, Sub-Himalayas using GIS and RS-based models. Appl Sci 12(23):12211. https://doi.org/10.3390/app122312211
Ismail E, Snousy MG, Alexakis DE, Gamvroula DE, Howard G, El Sayed E, Ahmed MS, Ali A, Abdelhalim A (2023) Multivariate statistical analysis and geospatial mapping for assessing groundwater quality in West El Minia District, Egypt. Water 15:2909. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15162909
Jordá-Borrell R, Ruiz-Rodríguez F, Lucendo-Monedero ÁL (2014) Factor analysis and geographic information system for determining probability areas of presence of illegal landfills. Ecol Indic 37:151–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2013.10.00
Kabata-Pendias A, Pendias H (1992) Trace elements in soils and plants. CRC Press Inc, Boca raton
Kaiser HF (1958) The varimax criterion for analytic rotation in factor analysis. Psychometrika 23:187–200. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02289233
Karpouza M, Chousianitis K, Bathrellos GD, Skilodimou HD, Kaviris G, Antonarakou A (2021) Hazard zonation mapping of earthquake-induced secondary effects using spatial multi-criteria analysis. Nat Hazards 109:637–669. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-021-04852-0
Karpouza M, Bathrellos GD, Kaviris G, Antonarakou A, Skilodimou HD (2023) How could students be safe during flood and tsunami events? Int J Disast Risk Re 95:103830. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2023.10383
Kokinou E, Skilodimou HD, Bathrellos GD, Antonarakou A, Kamberis E (2015) Morphotectonic analysis, structural evolution/pattern of a contractional ridge: Giouchtas Mt., Central Crete Greece. J Earth Syst Sci 124(3):587–602. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12040-015-0551-3
Kovačič G, Ravbar N (2013) Analysis of human induced changes in a karst landscape—the filling of dolines in the Kras plateau, Slovenia. Sci Total Environ 447:143–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.01.002
Makri P, Stathopoulou E, Hermides D et al (2020) The environmental impact of a complex hydrogeological system on hydrocarbon-pollutants’ natural attenuation: the case of the coastal aquifers in Eleusis, West Attica, Greece. J Mar Sci Eng 8(12):1018. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse8121018
Papadopoulou-Vrynioti Κ, Alexakis D, Bathrellos GD, Skilodimou HD, Vryniotis D, Vassiliades E, Gamvroula D (2013a) Distribution of trace elements in stream sediments of Arta plain (western Hellas): the influence of geomorphological parameters. J Geochem Explor 134:17–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2013.07.007
Papadopoulou-Vrynioti K, Bathrellos GD, Skilodimou HD, Kaviris G, Makropoulos K (2013b) Karst collapse susceptibility mapping considering peak ground acceleration in a rapidly growing urban area. Eng Geol 158:77–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2013.02.009
Papadopoulou-Vrynioti K, Alexakis D, Bathrellos G, Skilodimou H, Vryniotis D, Vassiliades E (2014) Environmental research and evaluation of agricultural soil of the Arta plain, western Hellas. J Geochem Explor 136:84–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2013.10.007
Papadopoulou-Vrynioti K, Mertzanis A, Vryniotis D, Vassiliades E, Karakitsios V (2015) The contribution of karstic rocks to soil quality, Ioannina plain (Epirus, Hellas). J Geochem Explor 154:224–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2014.12.006
Purushotham D, Lone MA, Rashid M, Rao AN, Ahmed S (2012) Deciphering heavy metal contamination zones in soils of a granitic terrain of southern India using factor analysis and GIS. J Earth Syst Sci 121:1059–1070. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12040-012-0209-3
Reimann C, Filzmoser P, Garrett RG (2002) Factor analysis applied to regional geochemical data: problems and possibilities. Appl Geochem 17:85–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-2927(01)00066-X
Salminen R, Batista MJ, Bidovec M, Demetriades A, De Vivo B, De Vos W, Duris M, Gilucis A, Gregorauskiene V, Halamic J,Heitzmann P, Lima A, Jordan G, Klaver G, Klein P, Lis J,Locutora J, Marsina K, Mazreku A, O’Connor PJ, Olsson SA,Ottesen RT, Petersell V, Plant JA, Reeder S, Salpeteur I,Sandstrom H, Siewers U, Steenfelt A, Tarvainen T (2005) FOREGS Geochemical Atlas of Europe Part 1. Background Information, Methodology and Maps. Geological Survey of Finland, Espoo 2005
Shan Y, Tysklind M, Hao F et al (2013) Identification of sources of heavy metals in agricultural soils using multivariate analysis and GIS. J Soils Sediments 13:720–729. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-012-0637-3
Shomar BH, MullerG YahyaA (2005) Geochemical features of topsoils in the Gaza Strip: natural occurrence and anthropogenic inputs. Environ Res 98:372–382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2004.10.008
Skilodimou HD, Bathrellos GD (2021) Natural and technological hazards in urban areas: assessment planning solutions. Sustainability Basel 13(15):8301. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13158301
Skilodimou H, Bathrellos G, Papadopoulou-Vrynioti K (2013) The spatial distribution of karst ecosystem using GIS in Attica, Greece. In: Proceedings of 16th International Congress of Speleology 2013, Brno, vol 21–28, no 2, pp 326–331
Skilodimou HD, Bathrellos GD, Maroukian H, Gaki-Papanastassiou K (2014) Late Quaternary evolution of the lower reaches of Ziliana stream in south Mt. Olympus, Greece. Geogr Fis e Din Quat 37(1):43–50. https://doi.org/10.4461/GFDQ.2014.37.5
Skilodimou HD, Bathrellos GD, Alexakis DE (2021) Flood hazard assessment mapping in burned and urban areas. Sustainability-Basel 13(8):4455. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13084455
Stalikas CD, Pilidis GA, Karayannis MI (1994) Heavy metal concentrations in sedime of Lake Ioannina and Kalamas River in North-Western Greece. Fresenius Environ Bull 3:575–579
Stamatis G, Alexakis D, Gamvroula D, Migiros G (2011) Groundwater quality assessment in Oropos-Kalamos basin, Attica, Greece. Environ Earth Scι 64(4):973–988. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-011-0914-2
Straffelini G, Ciudin R, Ciotti A, Gialanella S (2015) Present knowledge and perspectives on the role of copper in brake materials and related environmental issues: a critical assessment. Environ Pollut 207:211–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2015.09.024
Timofeev I, Kosheleva N, Kasimov N (2019) Health risk assessment based on the contents of potentially toxic elements in urban soils of Darkhan, Mongolia. J Environ Manag 242:279–289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.04.090
Tripathi VS (1979) Factor analysis in geochemical exploration. J Geochem Explor 11(3):263–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/0375-6742(79)90004-9
Τsolaki-Fiaka S, Bathrellos GD, Skilodimou HD (2018) Multi-criteria decision analysis for abandoned quarry restoration in Evros Region (NE Greece). Land 7(2):43. https://doi.org/10.3390/land7020043
Vryniotis D (2010) Soil geochemical- environmental survey of the N.W. Part of the Ioannina Basin. In: Open File Report, I.G.M.E.: Athens, Greece, p 95. (in Greek)
White WB (2018) Contaminant transport in karst aquifers: systematics and mechanisms. Karst groundwater contamination and public health: beyond case studies. Springer, Berlin, pp 55–81
Woszczyk M, Spychalski W, Boluspaeva L (2018) Trace metal (Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn) fractionation in urban-industrial soils of Ust-Kamenogorsk (Oskemen), Kazakhstan—implications for the assessment of environmental quality. Environ Monit Assess 190:1–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-018-6733-0
Youssef AM, Abu-Abdullah MM, AlFadail EA, Skilodimou HD, Bathrellos GD (2021) The devastating flood in the arid region a consequence of rainfall and dam failure: Case study, Al-Lith flood on 23th November 2018, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Z Geomorphol 63:115–136. https://doi.org/10.1127/zfg/2021/0672
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the anonymous reviewers for their constructive reviews that improved the quality of the paper significantly.
Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
GDB, HDS & DEA wrote the main manuscript text; HDS & DEG prepared figures; GDB, & DEA reviewed the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no competing interest.
Consent for publication
All authors have approved the manuscript and agreed to its submission.
Consent to participate
All authors have been actively involved with this work.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Bathrellos, G.D., Skilodimou, H.D., Gamvroula, D.E. et al. Evaluate the spatial distribution of trace elements in soil of a karst terrain. Carbonates Evaporites 39, 41 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13146-024-00949-2
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13146-024-00949-2