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Colonial modernity shaping the pipe dream: a historical account of advent of the modern water supply system in Trivandrum

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Abstract

The history of introduction of a “gravitation” water supply system in Trivandrum illustrates how a distinct colonial engineering ethos, amidst the prevailing state of affairs in the Travancore princely state, shaped critical decisions including coverage area, service level, and disposition of engineers towards traditional water bodies. The paper argues that the attempt to replicate an integrated hydrological system of the type adopted in London or Paris contained in itself a germ of failure from a financial standpoint. In addition to correspondence between engineers and administrators, the paper relies on the proposals submitted by colonial engineers to the Government of Travancore between 1882 and 1923 to illustrate the process of conception and introduction of the modern water supply system in Trivandrum. The continued focus on replicating this ideal, without any meaningful engagement with the local social and environmental context, partially explains the prevailing inequitable access to service provision and the acute public financial constraints faced by India’s small and medium towns.

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Notes

  1. Rapidly industrialising colonial nodal centres (like Bombay) experienced a massive influx of labour during the time. Lack of urban civic infrastructure threatened the general health of urban populace. Provision of potable water (for residents as well as for industries) and sanitation facilities was critical for protecting the interests of the government and British capital. It should also be noted that upgraded civic infrastructure was considered crucial to extend the reach of the state by colonial apparatus.

  2. Quoted by Broich (2007), from Second Report of the Commissioners for Inquiring into the State of Large Towns and Populous Districts, Parliamentary Papers, vol. 18 (London, 1845), 2.

  3. Sourcehttp://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/towncountry/towns/tyne-and-wear-case-study/about-the-group/public-administration/the-1848-public-health-act/ Accessed on 20th Feb, 2017.

  4. Ibid.

  5. Ibid.

  6. The civil engineer was called ‘physician’ of the city and was regarded very highly within the environment movement in Britain during the nineteenth century. Dossal (1988).

  7. Travancore kingdom under monarch Marthanda Varma gained dominance in the region by overpowering several principalities in the eighteenth century. In addition to rebellion from these conquered principalities and threat from landed aristocracy to the throne, there was also threat from the powerful Mysore state during late eighteenth century. Travancore state entered into a military treaty with the East India Company in return for protection against Mysore state and it agreed to pay an annual subsidy to the British along with the full cost of war. For more on process of state building undertaken by Travancore monarchy post-tenant reforms, see Tharakan (Tharakan 1994).

  8. Page 37, Town Distribution System. (1927–1928). The Government of Travancore (1927–1928).

  9. Ibid.

  10. Page 37, Town Distribution System. The Government of Travancore (1927–1928).

  11. It is not clear when the investigation was carried out. Since Barton was appointed as chief engineer of the province in 1873, the investigation must have been carried out between 1873 and 1878 (Institution of Civil Engineers 1903).

  12. Letter no. 296 P. W. 90 Dated 18th June 1881. Letter from Government to Chief Engineer; Appendix II Chapter 1: Historical; Page 76; S. No 5. The Government of Travancore (1927–1928).

  13. Appendix II Chapter 1: Historical; Page 77; S. No 7. Ibid.

  14. S. Horsely was the acting chief engineering during the time. This scheme was for a population of 50,000 with daily per capita consumption of 20 gallons. This purported to supply 1 million gallons of water per day at a cost of Rs. 0.5 million compared to the previous scheme (100,000 gallons per day at Rs. 0.2 million; A. H. Jacob’s scheme).

  15. The location where the first reservoir to provide water supply to Trivandrum was built.

  16. The storage reservoir was to be located at the back of Vellayambalam saddle in the heart of the town. Appendix II Chapter 1: Historical; Page 79; S. No 7. The Government of Travancore (1927–1928).

  17. Appendix II Chapter 1: Historical; Page 80; S. No 7. Ibid.

  18. In 1908, the Government withdrew restriction regarding registration of land in the command area that came under Jopp’s proposal. Jopp also prepared a scheme exclusively for town water supply. Appendix II Chapter 1: Historical; Page 82; S. No 52. Ibid.

  19. Page 420. Pillai (1996).

  20. The total outlay on the project by the end of 1925 was Rs. 8.7 million. Ibid. Page 420.

  21. Ibid.

  22. Administrative District.

  23. The financial estimate for the scheme submitted by F. J. Jacob was around Rs. 5.4 million. The Dewan Raghaviah instructed the Chief Engineer Natesa Iyer to explore whether it would be possible to modify the scheme (restricting it to lower parts), to bring down the cost within ‘practicable limits’. Appendix II Chapter 1: Historical; Page 92; S. No 7. The Government of Travancore (1927–1928).

  24. These areas included Poojapurai, Cotton Hill, Vellayambalam, Kanakakkunnu, Observatory, the Museum and Barton Hill. Letter from Natesa Iyer to Chief Secretary to Government, dated 21st Dec 1925. Appendix II Chapter 1: Historical; Page 92; S. No 7. The Government of Travancore (1927–1928).

  25. Letter No. 1089 dated 29th May 1924 from K. V. Natesa Iyer to the Chief Secretary to Government. Reference: Government R.O.C. No. 1055/P.W. dated 12th July 1923 and R.O.C. 439/23/P.W. dated 10th Oct 1923. In the section titled ‘Quantity of water to be allowed per head of population’, Iyer questions the rationale behind designing for 25 GPCD when people use much less, according to him. Ibid.

  26. Ibid.

  27. Chapter VII, Town Distribution System, P 42, S. no. 13. Ibid.

  28. James Welby Madeley was the chief architect of the Madras water works. F. J. Jacob himself suggested obtaining expert opinion for his scheme. Chief Engineer K. V. Natesa Iyer conveyed to the Government that he was not convinced of the real necessity of experts. He also told the Government that their engineers had put their best thought in coming up with the scheme. Ref: D. O. No. 1178 D., dated 10th June 1924. The letter was addressed to chief secretary to government. The Government of Travancore (1927-28) Trivandrum Water Works—Investigation, Report and Estimate Vol 1 (Government Report). Trivandrum.

  29. Details of modifications and associated saving are included in the ‘Report of the water supply for Trivandrum Town’ submitted by Madeley to Chief Secretary to Government in April 1926. Appendix II Chapter 1: Historical; Page 98; S. No 7. (1927–1928). The Government of Travancore (1927–1928).

  30. The Government of Travancore (1936), p. 159.

  31. Government in their R.O.C No. 1481/28/P.W. dated 5th May 1928 enquired whether the cost of the scheme would be considerably increased if the water supply area were fixed according to Messrs. Jacob and Banerjea’s scheme. In order to settle the matter, the Chief Engineer and the Executive Engineer met the Dewan on 29th May 1928 with a map and the Dewan marked on the map the limits of the proposed water supply scheme. Government formally approved this in their R.O.C No. 1481/28/P.W. dated 27th Aug 1928. See Table 1 for details. Chapter 1, Historical and Brief Description of Scheme, Page Number 2. The Government of Travancore (1927–1928) Trivandrum Water Works – Investigation, Report and Estimate Vol 1 (Government Report). Trivandrum.

  32. The high level zones included the following divisions: Poojapura, Pangode, Kowdiar, Cantonement, Puthenchanthai and Thycaud. The low level zone included Chalai, Manakad, Fort and Pettah Divisions.

  33. Letter from Madeley, Consulting Engineer, Madras, dated 3rd April 1926, to K. George, Chief Secretary to Government. In S. No. 9, he explicitly refers to water as a commodity. Chapter VII, Town Distribution System, in the list of requirements of an efficient and well laid put pipe distribution system, it is quoted thus: “The supply to all the consumers of an adequate supply of water continuously throughout the day”. The Government of Travancore (1927–1928).

  34. Ibid.

  35. Chapter VIII, Legislation and Finance, P 59, S. No. 14. The Government of Travancore (1927–1928).

  36. A comparison of lengths of distribution system between Trivandrum and Madras (now Chennai), makes it clear that the lengths of pipes per area (intensity of distribution) were quite comparable between the proposed Trivandrum water works and the then existing scheme in Madras. But when compared along the lines of length of distribution pipes per head of population, Trivandrum city needed to provide 2.25 times the extent of piping in Madras city to achieve the same intensity of distribution. Trivandrum required 4.45 R. ft. of pipes per head of population compared to Madras’s 1.97 R ft. of pipe in the distribution systems. Chapter 1, S. no. 8, Historical and Brief Description of Scheme, Page 5. The Government of Travancore (1927–1928).

  37. The Government of Travancore (1927–1928).

  38. Pillai (1996).

  39. Trivandrum water works was known as ‘Willingdon water Works’ in his commemoration. Ibid.

  40. Ibid, p. 169.

  41. PWD File No. R. Dis, No. 1659/1935, P. W. D. Trivandrum, 16 October 1935. Gilburt (1999).

  42. Ibid.

  43. Letter from the Chief Engineer to the Chief Secretary to the Government, No. 707, Trivandrum, dated 2 March 1935. The Government of Travancore (1927–1928).

  44. Proceedings of the Travancore Sri Mulam Popular Assembly (1935), Trivandrum, 1936, p. 543. It was the first popularly elected legislature in colonial India. Membership was limited to representatives of landlords and merchants. The objective was “solely to give the people an opportunity of bringing to the notice of the Government their requirements, wishes or grievances on the one hand, and on the other, to make the policy and measures of the Government better known to the people so that all possible grounds of misconception in regard to the action of Government may be removed.” Retrieved from http://www.keralaassembly.org/history/popular.html. Accessed on 6th Jan 2019.

  45. p. 152. The Government of Travancore (1939).

  46. PWD File No., R. D is. 1375/19391G. Trivandrum dated 27 June 1939. Gilburt (1999).

  47. Ibid.

  48. In 1935, the municipality was supposed to pay the Government Rs. 1,00,000. There was a deadlock between municipality and the Government as the former felt that the charges were too high. The Government agreed to considerably reduce the burden on the municipality by passing orders in 1937. PWD File No. R. Dis, 1492/1937, P. W. D, Trivandrum, dated 6th July 1937. Ibid.

  49. Total revenue mobilisation in 1947 was Rs. 93,469 from metered tariffs and other items of revenue including government buildings. Ibid.

  50. Letter from the Chief Secretary to the Water Works and Drainage Engineer, Trivandrum, 13th July 1937.

  51. The initial Letter from the President, Trivandrum Municipality to the Chief Secretary to Government, No. 5272, Trivandrum, dated 4th June 1928. Ibid.

  52. The town was divided into 3 blocks A, B and C with Block A encompassing the most important administrative buildings as well as residencies of elites along with the palaces. The sewerage network for Block A was commissioned in 1945 and the government had spent Rs. 3.3 million by the end of 1945. But the Government’s original plan was to install underground drainage in other two blocks if Block A turned out to be economically viable. Pillai (1940).

  53. The preliminary investigation of the Trivandrum drainage scheme was completed in 1935. Letter from the Dewan to A. Nallaperumalpillai, Sarvadhikariakar, R. O. C. No., 8525, Trivandrum, dated 1st August 1935. Ibid.

  54. Colonial engineering training was anchored on technology and monuments that had little to do with local knowledge and the engineering enterprise was not geared to render them better engineers. Speaking of education in Cooper Hill, Hill argues that the goal was to produce “men whose training was more oriented towards ideals of the empire than the practicalities of engineering”. The crucial thing was ‘a sense of noblesse oblige, of offering up a monument to the empire, which would legitimise imperialism and impress the native’. See Hill (2011).

  55. A report published in 1872, ‘The water supply of Bombay’ by Hector Tulloch, argued that the critical issue facing the city was how to extend the borrowing powers of the Municipality. The significance of this influential report was that the dominant technology paradigm from Europe could be replicated anywhere provided the financial and technical issues are resolved. See Gandy (2008).

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Acknowledgements

We thank Prof. D. Parthasarathy for his comments on an earlier version of this paper. We are grateful for helpful comments from Ellen Arnold and two anonymous reviewers. We would also like to express our gratitude to Rekha Bhangaonkar for her assistance in preliminary data collection. This paper has been partially supported by L’Agence nationale de la recherché (ANR) as part of the ENGIND (Engineers and Society in India, from C. 1850 to Present Times) project. We thank ANR for the support. All errors and omissions are our own.

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  1. Centre for Technology Alternatives for Rural Areas, Indian Institute of Technology, Mumbai, 400076, India

    Gautam Ganapathy & N. C. Narayanan

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  1. Gautam Ganapathy
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  2. N. C. Narayanan
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Correspondence to Gautam Ganapathy.

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Ganapathy, G., Narayanan, N.C. Colonial modernity shaping the pipe dream: a historical account of advent of the modern water supply system in Trivandrum. Water Hist 11, 107–124 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12685-019-00232-5

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