Abstract
The Himalayan Mountain Range has originated from the ongoing collision of the Eurasian and the Indo-Australian plates since the Paleogene. It is widely accepted that this tectonically-driven uplift is still continuing, as reflected by a large number of earthquakes in the area. Apart from the sub-surface and geophysical signatures, the surficial geomorphic markers deserve due attention. Fluvial systems, which preserve the evidence of the past and present tectonic perturbations on the surface, have often been investigated to assess the imprints of uplift in a region. Sensitive to long-term tectonic, structural and climatic regimes, the general forms of the longitudinal profile and its derivatives have been analysed across the globe for determining the varying roles of tectonics, litho-structure and climate. This article assesses the degree of tectonic and lithological control on the drainage network of the Rangit Basin in the Eastern Himalayas. One of the important characteristics of the studied basin is that the Main Central Thrust (MCT), which is located between the Greater Himalayas and the Lesser Himalayas, divides the basin into two distinct domains. Longitudinal profiles and their derivatives of 16 major tributaries of the Rangit River were extracted from the ALOS–PALSAR DEM and analysed. The controls on this Himalayan river were evaluated based on investigations of longitudinal profile shapes, stream gradient (SL) indices, longitudinal profile concavities and steepness. Prominent drainage anomalies such as above-grade conditions, exponential and linear fitting of longitudinal profiles, elevated values of SL indices, barbed drainage, over-steepened stream segments and fluvial hanging valleys imply rapid erosion rates in the basin. This is noticeable particularly in the lower domain of the Rangit Basin, especially in the areas located downstream of the MCT. A comparison of steep segments with the geological and lineament maps reveals that many of these anomalies are lineament-controlled. Furthermore, a large number of such features do not conform to lithological intersections, suggesting a possible tectonic factor behind the occurrence of such anomalies.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
source: DigitalGlobe image (Google Earth repository), 14 November 2019
source of (a): DigitalGlobe image (Google Earth repository), 14 November 2019
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Not applicable.
Code availability
Not applicable.
References
Acharya SK, Ray KK (1977) Geology of the Darjeeling-Sikkim Himalaya. Fourth International Gondwana Symposium, India, Report, 22p
Band LE (1986) Topographic partition of watersheds with digital elevation models. Water Resour Res 22:15–24. https://doi.org/10.1029/WR022i001p00015
Basu SK (2013) Geology of sikkim state and darjeeling district of west bengal. Geological Society of India, Bangalore, pp 37–81
Begin ZB (1975) Structural and lithological constraints on stream profiles in the Dead Sea Region. Israel J Geol 83(1):97–111. https://doi.org/10.1086/628047
Bilham R (1995) Location and magnitude of the 1833 Nepal earthquake and its relation to the rupture zones of contiguous great Himalayan earthquake. Curr Sci 69:101–128
Bishop P, Young RW, McDougall I (1985) Stream profile change and long-term landscape evolution: Early Miocene and Modern rivers of the East Australian Highland Crest, Central New South Wales, Australia. J Geol 93(4):455–474. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdfplus/https://doi.org/10.1086/628966
Brookfield ME (1998) The evolution of the great river systems of southern Asia during the Cenozoic India-Asia collision: river draining southwards. Geomorphology 22:285–312. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-555X(97)00082-2
CGWB: Central Ground Water Board (2018) South Sikkim District. Ground Water Information Booklet. http://cgwb.gov.in/District_Profile/Sikkim/South_sikkim.pdf Accessed 6 April 2020
Chakraborty I, Ghosh S, Bhattacharya D, Bora A (2011) Earthquake induced landslides in the Sikkim-Darjeeling Himalayas—an aftermath of the 18th September 2011 Sikkim earthquake. Geological Survey of India, Kolkata, p 8
Chen YC, Sung Q, Chen CN, Jean JS (2006) Variations in tectonic activities of the central and south-western foothills, Taiwan, Inferred from river Hack profiles. Terr Atmos Ocean Sci 17(3):563–578. https://doi.org/10.3319/TAO.2006.17.3.563(T)
Chorley RJ (1962) Geomorphology and General Systems Theory. US Geol Survey Prof Paper 500-B:B1-B10.
Clark MK, Schoenbohm LM, Royden LH, Whipple KX, Burchfiel BC, Zhang S, Tang W, Wang E, Chen L (2004) Surface uplift, tetctonics, and erosion of Eastern Tibet from large-scale drainage patterns. Tectonics 23(1):TC1006. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1029/2002TC001402
Crosby BT, Whipple KX, Gasparini NM, Wobus CW (2007) Formation of fluvial hanging valleys: theory and simulation. J Geophys Res 112(F3):F03S10. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JF000566
Das A, Agrawal R, Mohan S (2015) Topographic correction of ALOS-PALSAR images using InSAR-derived DEM. Geocarto Int 30(2):145–153. https://doi.org/10.1080/10106049.2014.883436
Das S, Patel PP, Sengupta S (2016) Evaluation of different digital elevation models for analyzing drainage morphometric parameters in a mountainous terrain: a case study of the Supin-Upper Tons Basin. Indian Himalayas SpringerPlus 5(1544):1–38. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40064-016-3207-0
de la Torre TL, Monslave AF, Sheehan S, Sapkota S, Wu F (2007) Earthquake processes of the Himalayan collision zone in eastern Nepal and southern Tibet plateau. Geophys J Int 171:718–738. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2007.03537.x
Demoulin A (1998) Testing the tectonic significance of some parameters of longitudinal river profiles: the case of the Ardenne (Belgium, NW Europe). Geomorphology 24(2–3):189–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-555X(98)00016-6
Dodeja SK, Tripathi AK (2002) Implementation of catchments area treatment plan in Sikkim, Himalaya. In: Kaushish SP, Naidu BSK (eds) Proceedings of 2nd International Conference on Silting Problems in Hydropower Plants, Bangkok, pp. 9–21.
Ferraris F, Firpo M, Pazzaglia FJ (2012) DEM analyses and morphotectonic interpretation: the Plio-Quaternary evolution of the eastern Ligurian Alps, Italy. Geomorphology 149–150:27–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2012.01.009
Flint JJ (1974) Stream gradient as a function of order, magnitude, and discharge. Water Resour Res 10(5):969–973. https://doi.org/10.1029/WR010i005p00969
Goldrick G, Bishop P (2007) Regional analysis of bedrock stream long profiles: Evaluation of Hack’s SL form, and formulation and assessment of an alternative (the DS Form). Earth Surf Proc Land 32(5):649–671. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.1413
Goswami R, Brocklehurst SH, Mitchell NC (2012) Erosion of a tectonically uplifting coastal landscape, NE Sicily, Italy. Geomorphology 171–172:114–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2012.05.011
GSI: Geological Survey of India (2012) Geology and Mineral Resources of the States of India, Pt. 1: Sikkim, Miscl Pub 30(XIX), 55p.
Guha S, Patel PP (2017) Evidence of topographic disequilibrium in the Subarnarekha River Basin, Eastern India: a digital elevation model based analysis. J Earth Syst Sci 126:106. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12040-017-0884-1
Gunnell Y (1998) The interaction between geological structure and global tectonics in multistoreyed landscape development: a denudation chronology of the South Indian shield. Basin Res 10(3):281–310. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2117.1998.00072.x
Hack JT (1957) Studies of longitudinal stream profile in Virginia and Maryland. US Geol Survey Prof Paper 294-B:45–95.
Hack JT (1973) Stream profile analysis and stream-gradient index. J Res US Geol Surv 1(4):421–429
Howard AD, Seidl MA, Dietrich WE (1994) Modeling fluvial erosion on regional to continental scales. J Geophys Res 99(B7):13971–13986
IMD: India Meteorological Department (2018) Customized Rainfall Information System (CRIS). Hydromet Division, India Meteorological Department, Ministry of Earth Sciences, New Delhi. http://hydro.imd.gov.in/hydrometweb/(S(uw4ptqehyw3huc452eqfpi55))/DistrictRaifall.aspx. Accessed 16 March 2020
Jade S, Mukul M, Bhattacharyya AK, Vijayan MSM, Jaganathan S, Kumar A, Tiwari RP, Kumar A, Kalita S, Sahu SC, Krishna AP (2007) Estimates of interseismic deformation in Northeast India from GPS measurements. Earth Planet Sci Lett 263(3–4):221–234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2007.08.031
Jenson SK, Domingue JO (1988) Extracting topographic structure from digital elevation data for geographic information system analysis. Photogramm Eng Remote Sens 54:1593–1600
Juyal N, Sundriyal YP, Rana N, Chaudhary S, Singhvi AK (2010) Late Quaternary fluvial aggradation and incision in the monsoon-dominated Alaknanda valley, Central Himalaya, Uttrakhand, India. J Quat Sci 25:1293–1304. https://doi.org/10.1002/jqs.1413
Kale VS, Shejwalkar N (2007) Western ghat escarpment evolution in the Deccan Basalt Province: geomorphic observations based on DEM analysis. J Geol Soc India 70(3):459–473
Kale VS, Sengupta S, Achyuthan H, Jaiswal MK (2014) Tectonic controls upon the Kaveri River drainage, cratonic Peninsular India: Inferences from longitudinal profiles, morphotectonic indices, hanging valleys and fluvial records. Geomorphology 227:153–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.07.027
Kirby E, Ouimet W (2011) Tectonic geomorphology along the eastern margin of Tibet: insights into the pattern and processes of active deformation adjacent to the Sichuan Basin. Geol Soc Spec Publ 353:165–188. https://doi.org/10.1144/SP353.9
Kirby E, Johnson C, Furlong K, Heimsath A (2007) Transient channel incision along Bolinas Ridge, California: Evidence for differential rock uplift adjacent to San Andreas Fault. J Geophys Res 112(F3):F03S07. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JF000559
Klootwijk CT, Conaghan PJ, Powell CMcA, (1985) The Himalayan arc: Large–scale continental subduction, oroclinal bending and back–arc spreading. Earth Planet Sci Lett 75(2–3):167–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-821X(85)90099-8
Korup O, Schmidt J, McSavaney MJ (2005) Regional relief characteristics and denudation pattern of the western Southern Alps. New Zealand Geomorphol 71(3–4):402–423. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2005.04.013
Le Fort P, Cronin VS (1988) Granites in the Tectonic Evolution of the Himalaya, Karakoram and Southern Tibet. Phil Trans R Soc Lond A 326(1589):281–299. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.1988.0088
Lee CS, Tsai LL (2010) A quantitative analysis for geomorphic indices of longitudinal river profile: a case-study of the Choushui River, Central Taiwan. Environ Earth Sci 59:1549–1558. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-009-0140-3
Mukul M, Srivastava V, Mukul M (2015) Analysis of the accuracy of Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) height models using International Global Navigation Satellite System Service (IGS) Network. J Earth Syst Sci 124:1343–1357. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12040-015-0597-2
Murty CVR, Raghukanth STG, Menon A, Goswami R, Vijayanarayanan AR, Gandhi SR, Satyanarayana NK, Sheth A, Rai DC, Mondal G, Singhal V, Parool N, Pradhan T, Jaiswal AK, Kaushik HB, Dasgupta K, Chaurasia A, Bhushan S, Roy D, Ramancharla PK (2012) The Mw 6.9 Sikkim-Nepal Border Earthquake of September 18, 2011. EERI Special Earthquake Report—February 2012, 14 p.
Nakata T (1972) Geomorphic history and crustal movements of the foot–hills of the Himalayas. Science Report Tohoku Univ. 7th series (Geography) 22:39–177.
Niipele JN, Chen J (2019) The usefulness of alos-palsar dem data for drainage extraction in semi-arid environments in the Iishana sub-basin. J Hydrol Reg Stud 21:57–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2018.11.003
Nir D (1957) The ratio of relative and absolute altitudes of Mt. Carmel: a contribution to the problem of relief analysis and relief classification. Geogr Rev 47(4):564–569. https://doi.org/10.2307/211866
O’Callaghan JF, Mark DM (1984) The extraction of drainage networks from digital elevation data. Comput Gr Image Process 28(3):323–344. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0734-189X(84)80011-0
Pavlis NK, Holmes SA, Kenyon SC, Factor JK (2012) The development and evaluation of the earth gravitational model 2008 (EGM 2008). J Geophys Res 117(B4):B04406. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JB008916
Pederson JL, Tressler C (2012) Colorado river long-profile, metrics, knickzones and their meaning. Earth Planet Sci Lett 345–348:171–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2012.06.047
Perez-Pena JVP, Azanon JM, Azor A, Delgado J, Gonzalez-Lodeiro F (2009) Spatial analysis of stream power using GIS: SLk anomaly maps. Earth Surf Proc Land 34(1):16–25. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.1684
Phillips JD (1988) The role of spatial scale in geomorphic systems. Geogr Anal 20(4):308–317. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1538-4632.1988.tb00185.x
Pradhan R, Prajapati SK, Chopra S, Kumar A, Bansal BK, Reddy CD (2013) Causative source of Mw 6.9 Sikkim-Nepal border earthquake of September 2011: GPS baseline observations and strain analysis. J Asian Earth Sci 70–71:179–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2013.03.012
Raina VK, Srivastava D (2008) Glacier atlas of India. Geological Survey of India, Bangalore
Rice SP, Church M (2001) Longitudinal profiles in simple alluvial systems. Water Resour Res 37(2):417–426. https://doi.org/10.1029/2000WR900266
Roe GH, Montgomery DR, Hallet B (2002) Effects of orographic precipitation variations on the concavity of steady-state river profiles. Geology 30(2):143–146. https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030%3c0143:EOOPVO%3e2.0.CO;2
Roy AB, Purohit R (2018) The himalayas: evolution through collision. Indian Shield, pp 311–327. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-809839-4.00018-7
Seeber L, Gornitz V (1983) River profiles along the Himalayan arc as indicators of active tectonics. Tectonophysics 92(4):335–337,341–367. https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(83)90201-9
Seidl MA, Dietrich WE, Kirchner JW (1994) Longitudinal profile development into bedrock: an analysis of Hawaiian Channels. J Geol 102(4):457–474. https://doi.org/10.1086/629686
Shawky M, Moussa A, Hassan QK, El-Sheimy N (2019) Pixel-based geometric assessment of channel networks/orders derived from global spaceborne digital elevation models. Remote Sens 11(3):235. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11030235
Shepherd RG (1985) Regression analysis of river profiles. J Geol 93(3):377–384. https://doi.org/10.1086/628959
Singh A, Kumar MR, Raju PS (2010) Seismic structure of the underthrusting Indian crust in Sikkim Himalaya. Tectonics 29(6):TC6021. https://doi.org/10.1029/2010TC002722
Sinha-Roy S (1974) Polymetamorphism in the Daling rocks from a part of the Eastern Himalayas and the problems of Himalayan metamorphism. Himal Geol 4:74–101
Sinha-Roy S (1977) Metamorphism and tectonics of the Himalayas as illustrated in the Eastern Himalayas. Geotectonics 11:120–124
Sklar LS, Dietrich WE (1998) River longitudinal profiles and bedrock incision models: Stream power and the influence of sediment supply. In: Tinkler KJ, Wohl EE (eds) Rivers over rock: Fluvial processes in bedrock channels. Geophys Monogr Ser 107:237–260. https://doi.org/10.1029/GM107p0237
Snow RS, Slingerland RL (1987) Mathematical modeling of graded river profiles. J Geol 95(1):15–33. https://doi.org/10.1086/629104
Snyder NP, Whipple KX, Tucker GE, Merritts DJ (2000) Landscape response to tectonic forcing: Digital Elevation Model analysis of stream profiles in the Mendocino triple junction region, northern California. Geol Soc Am Bull 112(8):1250–1263. https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(2000)112%3c1250:LRTTFD%3e2.0.CO;2
Starkel L (1987) The role of the inherited forms in the present-day relief of the polish carpathians. In: Gardiner V (ed) International Geomorphology 1986. Part II, Wiley, New York, pp 1030–1045
Tamang P (2002) Systematics distribution and ecology of the ichthyospecies of Sikkim and their bearing on the fish and fisheries of the state. Unpublished PhD Thesis, Gauhati University, pp. 14–58.
Thakur VC, Mahajan AK, Gupta V (2012) Seismotectonics of 18 September 2011 Sikkim earthquake: a component of transcurrent deformation in eastern Himalaya. Himal Geol 33(1):89–96
Thiede RC, Bookhagen B, Arrowsmith JR, Sobel ER, Strecker MR (2004) Climatic control on rapid exhumation along the Southern Himalayan Front. Earth Planet Sci Lett 222(3–4):791–806. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2004.03.015
Verzani J (2014) Using R for introductory statistics, 2nd edn. CRC Press, USA
Whipple KX (2004) Bedrock rivers and the geomorphology of active orogens. Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci 32:151–185. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.32.101802.120356
Whipple KX, Tucker GE (1999) Dynamics of the stream-power river incision model: implications for height limits of mountain ranges, landscape response timescales, and research needs. J Geophys Res 104(B8):17661–17674. https://doi.org/10.1029/1999JB900120
Whittaker AC (2012) How do landscapes record tectonics and climate? Lithosphere 4(2):160–164. https://doi.org/10.1130/RF.L003.1
Wobus C, Crosby BT, Whipple KX (2006) Hanging valleys in fluvial systems: controls on occurrence and implications for landscape evolution. J Geophys Res 111(F2):F02017. https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JF000406
Yap L, Kandé LH, Nouayou R, Kamguia J, Ngouh NA, Makuate MB (2019) Vertical accuracy evaluation of freely available latest high-resolution (30 m) global digital elevation models over Cameroon (Central Africa) with GPS/levelling ground control points. Int J Digit Earth 12(5):500–524. https://doi.org/10.1080/17538947.2018.1458163
Zaprowski BJ, Pazzaglia FJ, Evenson EB (2005) Climatic influences on profile concavity and river incision. J Geophys Res 110(F3):F03004. https://doi.org/10.1029/2004JF000138
Žibret L, Žibret G (2014) Use of geomorphological indicators for the detection of active faults in southern part of Ljubljana moor. Slovenia Acta Geogr Slov 54(2):271–291. https://doi.org/10.3986/AGS54203
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Abhijit Ghosh for kindly allowing to use a photograph of the Kabru South Peak along with the Chokchurang Chu (used in Fig. 2a) from his collection. Acknowledgements are also due to the Editor and two anonymous reviewers, whose valuable suggestions immensely helped in improving this paper.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
The entire paper was a joint effort by four authors. Specific contribution of the authors in preparing the manuscript are as follows: AS: Planning, visualization, resources. LR: Data analysis, mapping, reference compilation. SD: Mapping, writing (original draft preparation), editing. SS: Conceptualization, text review and editing, supervision.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Sarkar, A., Roy, L., Das, S. et al. Fluvial response to active tectonics: analysis of DEM-derived longitudinal profiles in the Rangit River Basin, Eastern Himalayas, India. Environ Earth Sci 80, 258 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-021-09561-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-021-09561-2