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Quality and hydrochemistry of groundwater used for drinking in Lahore, Pakistan: analysis of source and distributed groundwater

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Abstract

More than 7 million people of Lahore city, Pakistan, use groundwater for drinking and other household purposes. The quality of drinking water from source and distribution system was investigated, and the hydrochemical characteristics and formation mechanisms of groundwater were analyzed. Statistical summary showed higher mean values of major descriptors in distributed groundwater samples compared with source groundwater samples. A total of 50 drinking water samples (16 from source, and 34 from distribution system) were examined for physical, chemical and bacteriological parameters, including pH, turbidity, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, total hardness, total alkalinity, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, SO4 2−, Cl−, NO3 −, F−, arsenic (As) chromium (Cr), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb). Varying concentrations of trace amounts of Cr (in 8 samples), Fe (18 samples), Cu (18 samples), Zn (13 samples) and Pb (14 samples) were detected. However, the detected trace elements were within the WHO permissible limits for drinking water except Pb where 5 out of 14 samples showed higher than WHO limit value (Pb > 0.01 mg/L). 19 out of 50 samples (6 from source and 13 from distributed samples) showed high values of alkalinity (>250 mg/L). All of 16 groundwater samples from source exceeded 0.01 mg/L WHO limit value for arsenic (As). On the basis of bacteriological analysis, 42 % samples (12 % from source, 55 % from distribution) did not meet WHO guidelines and were unsafe for drinking, especially distributed groundwater samples. Mg–HCO3 contents predominated the groundwater type followed by Ca–HCO3. Carbonate weathering was revealed to be the dominant process controlling dissolution/precipitation processes. PHREEQC modeling showed that the aqueous phase was undersaturated with respect to significant gypsum, halite and mirabilite while equilibrium to saturated with respect to aragonite, calcite and dolomite was observed. Principal component analysis (PCA) revealed that the concentration of As was strongly associated with that of SO4 2−. Reductive dissolution and pH-dependent desorption are the plausible processes responsible for the observed high As concentrations in Lahore.

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Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the material support from Institute of Chemistry University of Punjab, Lahore, and Water and Sanitation Agency Lahore, Pakistan. The research work was jointly supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 40802058) and Ministry of Science and Technology of China (2012AA062602). The authors would like to appreciate the reviewers and editors for their helpful comments and suggestion.

Compliance with Ethical Standards

This research has neither been submitted in part or whole to any journal nor published elsewhere. Furthermore, we declare that there is no conflict of interest. The authors have made utmost efforts to acknowledgement source of funding. Ethical considerations during sampling and data interpretation were followed.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), Lumo Lu 388, Wuhan, 430074, Hubei, China

    Zainab Abbas, Chunli Su & Harold Wilson Tumwitike Mapoma

  2. University of Engineering and Technology Lahore, G.T. Rd, Lahore, 54890, Punjab, Pakistan

    Fazeelat Tahira

  3. Water and Sanitation Agency Lahore, Zahoor Elahi Rd, Lahore, 54000, Punjab, Pakistan

    Syed Zahid Aziz

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  1. Zainab Abbas
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  2. Chunli Su
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  3. Fazeelat Tahira
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  4. Harold Wilson Tumwitike Mapoma
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  5. Syed Zahid Aziz
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Correspondence to Chunli Su.

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Abbas, Z., Su, C., Tahira, F. et al. Quality and hydrochemistry of groundwater used for drinking in Lahore, Pakistan: analysis of source and distributed groundwater. Environ Earth Sci 74, 4281–4294 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-015-4432-5

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-015-4432-5

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