Introduction

Two great physicists, Niels Bohr and Albert Einstein, began debating the basic nature of reality in 1927. Other physicists also carried out experiments to determine the levels of reality. Contrary to Einstein’s theory, the fundamental nature of reality has been proven to consist of consciousness as well as matter (Lyon, 2016). As maintained by Bohr, consciousness and matter are inter-related as the fundamental characteristics of reality. Shamanism provides a more visible aspect of human consciousness, which makes the practice very real in human society.

Most individuals do not instantly respond to the occurrence of various disasters, such as man-made emergencies and natural calamities. Rather, their response is based on their perception of these disasters (Etkin et al., 2014), which is influenced by many sub-factors, including belief in gods, guardian angels, and shamanic spirits. Shamanism thus has considerable influence on how individuals react to various disasters. Therefore, it is important in the field of disaster management to consider how individuals interpret their belief in shamanism.

Shamanism encompasses several topics, such as rituals, psychic healing, psychoanalysis, magic, and divination. The shaman plays a role in entering into and then returning from sacred power or unseen forces, including not only the struggle with evils but also the fundamentals of human mortality (Hutch, 2000). Positivist science has been rarely applied to the study of shamanism, considering that the practice has a spiritual, nonphysical, and even mysterious dimension. Thus, the present research explores the role of shamans or shamanism in the field of disaster management.

Various stakeholders, after experiencing different disasters, have tried to provide new ideas on disaster management. However, the complexity of human affairs, along with climate change, has made this task difficult. The concept of shamanism may thus be considered as an innovative option in disaster management, which may result in improved cause and effect, project performance, and sustainability in the long term.

The outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) as an extreme disaster continues to affect all nations in the world today. Around the beginning of 2020, few people knew how to deal with COVID-19, mainly because it was a new pandemic (Hu et al., 2021). Some people have resisted the practice of wearing face masks in public places, whereas others have refused to get vaccinated. Even fully vaccinated people have not escaped being infected by the Omicron variant of the coronavirus. All these have led not only to human losses and economic damages but also to a high extent of psychological impact.

South Korea (here after Korea) was chosen as the subject for the present study due to a number of factors. The nation has been affected by several disasters, such as the sinking of the ferry MV Sewol, the outbreak of the Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), earthquakes in the Pohang area, the outbreak of animal diseases, typhoons accompanied by floods, one of the highest suicide rates in the world, the outbreak of COVID-19, and Itaewon crowd crush (NDTI, 2022). Considered as a developed nation, Korea has focused more on the physical impacts of disasters, such as human losses and economic damages, without adequately addressing the social impacts, including the psychological effects. In short, the Korean disaster management system has not been comprehensive.

Korean shamanism has retained its unique characteristics, as evidenced by the shamanic shrines in downtown areas, the traditional dance on a straw cutter, the lack of perception during shamanic ecstasy in ceremonial performances, and the ritual performance of shamans during some official ceremonies (New World Encyclopedia, 2021). In addition, most Koreans have been directly or indirectly involved in shamanism in terms of their individual psychological aspirations or support. In light of this, the present research poses the question: What is the role of shamanism in Korean disaster management?

The purpose of this study is to explore factors that can improve the role of Korean shamanism toward the ultimate goal of decreasing the psychological impact of disasters. Two methods, namely, secularism and psychological impact mitigation, are examined based on four variables: professional shamans, community leaders, educators and researchers, and disaster victims. Whereas the secularism approach tries to decrease the extent of difficulties in the everyday life of individuals, the psychological impact mitigation approach helps individuals to overcome the psychological effects of a disaster. The key finding is that the nation needs to boost its current secularism approach with the psychological impact mitigation approach. Asian countries could benefit from insights on the importance of behavioral change, cultural competency, neo-shamanism, and multiple networks.

Literature Review

Basic Theories

Supernatural beings, such as god(s), spirits, ghosts, and the devil, are entities that cannot be appropriately explained by science. Some people have had experience with supernatural beings. Individuals differ in their supernatural beliefs depending on their age or related experiences, and they instinctively view or interpret supernatural beings based on their self-perception. However, many people have started to discuss their experience of supernatural beings on a broader level, including human activities, communities, cultures, and environments (Pirta, 2019). In a sense, these people tend to view the supernatural in terms of the relationship between individual minds and the social environment.

In shamanism as a spiritual practice, practitioners associate with various spirits, in particular through an altered state of consciousness (also known as a trance or ecstasy). Shamanism has been commonly existent in all nations, mainly because it has evolved or developed through human activities or over the course of human history (Singh, 2020). That is, local shamanism has evolved as a tradition within the distinct culture or unique history of each nation or region.

Moreover, shamanism has become part of human nature because it has been adapted to the intuitions, capacities, and survival of local peoples in each nation over long periods (Winkelman, 2009). Whereas some ancient shamanic practices have vanished, others are still carried out today. A few practices have reappeared after undergoing some transformation or modification. Shamanism is associated with ancient or outdated practices, it cannot be considered merely as a thing of the past but rather as an important aspect of human evolution, human needs, and human nature.

Shamanism has been frequently noted as one of the oldest professions in human history. However, it is hard to determine exactly how many people believe in shamanic spirituality in each nation, given that some individuals secretly believe in the practice. In addition, the activity of shamans has been more traditionally advocated in Siberia than in other places. The most classic form of shamanism is found in Siberia, and the term “shaman” originated from samann, which in the language of the Siberian Tungus tribe means “to know” (Kenny, 2012).

During the mid-nineteenth century, many researchers and practitioners in the international community began to use and popularize the term “shaman” in their works. They found that European titles, such as diviner, sorcerer, healer, juggler, and magician, did not fully express the concept of a shaman. However, the term did not have an exact definition at that time.

Even today, "shaman" has various meanings, with each region having developed its own definition (Krippner, 2007). Nevertheless, those multiple meanings may be summarized into this: A shaman is one who lives with mysteries, including death, diseases, and various kinds of disasters. Shamans claim that they have the power or knowledge to confront these mysteries and the ability to move between the spiritual and the material world. Thus, they are religious priests, medicine men, or individuals connected with different professions.

Defining the concept of shamanism has not been easy either. The term means different things to individuals, including a belief, a tradition, or a religion, such as totemism or animism. Mircea Eliade in 1951/1964 defined shamanism as techniques of ecstasy, trance, or magical flight among people in the west (Eliade, 1974). Research on shamanism has increased in many regions since the works of Eliade, whose definition was regarded as a reference and thus used as a tool for the study of neo-shamanism in the international community.

The subject of shamanism is included under the category of local, traditional, or indigenous knowledge. Local knowledge is usually passed on orally to descendants from ancestors without relying on formal documents. The category may be further divided into common and specialist knowledge (Dekens, 2007). Shamanism is a typical example of specialist knowledge, given that only a few shamans in a community retain the related local knowledge, which directly or indirectly contributes to the management of various disasters in a community.

In terms of research level, several studies in the international community have focused on shamanism. The research areas have been diverse and extensive, including psychology, psychiatry, medical science, physics, theology, archeology, regional studies, and natural sciences. Although some researchers have investigated shamanism in relation to disaster management, most have only partially touched on the subject and focused instead on other themes (Roedenbeck, 2014). Nonetheless, these previous researches have contributed to an understanding of the association between shamanism and disaster management.

Regardless of which research area is used as the basis for studying shamanism in the field of disaster management, one notable finding is the importance of a multidisciplinary perspective. Considering that the topic of shamans or shamanism is not simple and linear but rather complicated and nonlinear, a multidisciplinary viewpoint is better able to explain the subject compared with any single perspective (Rock and Krippner, 2011). Without such multidisciplinary perspective, the whole framework of shamanism in any region could not be systematically outlined.

Literature Review in Korea

During the Chosun dynasty (1392–1897) in Korea, Confucianism was the basis of national policy (Han, 2004). Men dominated all aspects of life in the nation, including official ceremonies. Because the society was patriarchal, women did not have the opportunity to express themselves or manage their own stresses. Under these circumstances, some women began to secretly take on the occupation of a shaman. New shamans were trained by senior ones by using the traditional, unwritten method (Yang, 1988). The active role of female shamans has endured even in the present time.

From the perspective of religion, although globalization has resulted in the conversion of some Koreans to Islam or Hinduism, the majority of Koreans follow either Christianity or Buddhism. Some researchers classify shamanism and Confucianism as religions (Oh, 2016). However, strictly speaking, they are not similar to other religions in that they do not have organized beliefs, formal organization, or moral codes and sacred objects. In particular, shamanism has some aspects of superstition, whereas Confucianism relates more to ethics.

Two major religions are directly or indirectly associated with shamanism in Korea: Christianity and Buddhism (Kim, 2000, 2018a, b). Many Christians seek the fulfillment of their wishes through their church activities, similarly to the function of shamanism, and both Christianity and shamanism believe in the existence of a supreme god. Buddhist temples across the country have been traditionally established by monks as buildings for the guardian spirits of a mountain, to whom they then pray. Some monks practice fortune-telling as well. In particular, Korean Buddhism has integrated shamanism into its temples.

Shamanism in Korea characteristically does not have a wide spectrum of singularity but rather a high degree of plurality (Kim, 2012). Similarly, there are not only multiple images (e.g., negative, positive, neutral, etc.) but also various realities (e.g., government policies on shamanism, shamans’ beliefs about themselves, etc.) in Korean shamanism. In addition, dynamic relationships exist between shamans and their clients, which depend on several factors, including the shamanic worldview, scientific rationalism, and the temporary desires of clients. The precise extent of plurality varies under different environments.

In a sense, there has always been widespread prejudice against shamanism in Korea (Chung, 2018). Throughout Korean history, the practice has not been officially welcomed but rather has been despised and persecuted regardless of the ruling ideology, whether Confucianism, capitalism, or democracy. The prejudice against shamans may be more clearly explained by the issue of cultural politics in Korea than by any other factors. The ruling classes have eagerly sought cultural triumph against shamanism by relying on their own ideologies. In this context, these classes have continued to spread cultural prejudice against shamanism.

Korean shamanism has tried with some difficulty to adapt to cultural changes (Phillips, 2010). A few decades ago, shamans contributed to the redressal of illnesses or domestic conflicts of individuals. However, the economic growth at the end of the twentieth century has resulted in the destruction of many shaman shrines. Recently, clients have been more willing to consult with shamans toward solving business-related problems than for any other reasons. Further, clients have been able to consult with shamans through advanced information and communication technologies, such as the Internet and mobile phones.

If indigenous psychology deals with examining psychological phenomena in cultural contexts, the Korean reliance on shamanism for psychological mitigation should be firmly based on indigenous psychology (Hwang, 2010). Some Western psychologists still face difficulties in understanding indigenous psychology. However, they will understand the core values of shamanism when they comprehend the local culture and language. At the same time, non-Western psychologists may well explain local shamanism, in particular when depending on indigenous psychology.

Similarly, reviewing Korean shamanism is an effective channel to understand Koreans’ selfhood, unique worldviews, psychological suffering, or else (IvyPanda, 2022; Mascolo and Maheshwari, 2019). Selfhood or the perspective of a first person (or I) has been substantially reflected to local shamanism, when reflecting that many local residents have preferred to consult with favorite shamans. At the same time, worldview differences have been formed to shamanism. Likewise, when a baby is born, many people as well as Shamans in Korea believe that a soul (or karmic implication) is transmigrated to his or her body. Regarding psychological suffering, the Koreans have traditionally suffered from a feeling of bitterness.

To elaborate, a number of Koreans as a sort of selfhood have continued to believe that their suffering will be mitigated, fully or partially, thanks to the power of shamanism. Korean suffering has been uniquely known as han, but the term has not been successfully translated into other languages. Indeed, han is a kind of emotional turbulence, but it variously includes the high extent of not only grief but also resentment (Huer, 2009). Older Koreans have blowing off steam, whereas younger Koreans have been willing to express their emotion. Shamanism has survived for a long time, but it still faces many challenges such as politics, threats of other religions, physical science, and others. In summary, the culture of Korean shamanism has been solidly located in local areas with the support of individuals’ selfhood and suffering.

Korean researchers began to seriously study the issue of shamanism in the 1960s, publishing shamanic narratives while documenting rituals and ceremonies. The research was divided into two perspectives, shamanism as folklore (musok) and shamanism as an indigenous religion (mugyo) (Seo, 2013). More diverse perspectives, such as cultural and psychological ones, are currently being applied. Nonetheless, no studies have rigorously explored the role of shamanism in disaster management. The present work thus provides an opportunity to fill the research gap.

There are two distinctive approaches to the study of shamanism in the field of disaster management. The first is the secularism approach. Shamanism in Korea has developed its own belief system, including concepts of wealth, longevity, health, and fertility (Walter and Fridman, 2004). Many individuals consider these areas as potential sources of disasters or tragedies in their lives; hence, they rely on shamanism to pursue monetary benefit, a long life, physical healing, and having children.

In the secularism approach, the focus of Korean shamanism is solving difficulties in everyday life, given that each of the four above-mentioned areas encompasses many aspects of secular life. In fact, the desire for wealth, longevity, health, and fertility, among others, motivate many people to turn to shamanism. Accordingly, Korean shamanism does not focus on either the afterlife or the cosmos. Death rites are considered not as the end but rather as a passage. Regarding the cosmos, Korean shamanism divides the world only into a spiritual and a human plane.

The second approach is psychological impact mitigation. Some Koreans use shamanism as a healing tool toward overcoming a psychological disaster. As in other places, many Korean individuals are mentally or psychologically impacted by the challenges in their lives. Some also believe that disasters are caused by hovering ghosts. The shaman contributes to cleaning up a disaster by applying simple exorcism. In this case, the shaman has been described as a wounded surgeon (Kendall, 1988). Specifically, shamanic affliction is considered as a passage rite toward mental healing.

In 1963, Claude Levi-Strauss stated that it was possible for shamans to treat or heal ill patients or disaster victims by making full use of psychological or magical methods (Levi-Strauss, 1977). Shamans should be able to treat disaster victims solely by using psychological influences, without relying on the combination of drug treatment, manual intervention, and psychological methods. Thus, Levi-Strauss described shamans as noble savages; he also emphasized that psychological support should be provided in sustainable ways.

Disaster mitigation aims to eliminate the impacts of various disasters through weather forecasts, hazard mapping, tornado safe rooms, vaccination and treatment, and disaster conferences, among others. It includes appropriate activities that can decrease the potential effects of disasters or risks against people and property. Although disaster mitigation initially seems to be applicable in the period before a disaster, it is actually applicable before, during, and after the occurrence of a disaster (FEMA, 2006). In this regard, psychological impact mitigation is also applicable to the pre-disaster, disaster, and post-disaster periods. Successful psychological impact mitigation should thus be regarded not as a one-time solution but as a lifetime strategy.

Psychological impact mitigation is somewhat different from other standard mental health approaches (Sanchez-Gomez et al., 2021). Considering that trauma is the emotional response of an individual to terrible events, including natural hazards and man-made emergencies, the psychological impact mitigation approach falls under the category of trauma psychology. Any long-lasting psychological symptom can develop into post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Compared with other standard mental health approaches, psychological impact mitigation is surrounded by uncertain environments, such as a short period of disaster response, the lack of medical supplies during emergencies, and other contingencies. In many aspects, psychological impact mitigation is more time-oriented than other standard mental health approaches.

Methodology

Descriptive content analysis was used to study the data collected toward a summary (or description) of shamanism in relation to disaster management, in an attempt to address the research question (Creswell, 2009). This method is well known to provide a systematic review of the significant characteristics of a subject or an analysis. A considerable amount of qualitative data on shamanism and disaster management was collected in this work; thus, descriptive content analysis was the major methodology applied.

The process included defining a research question, collecting information, analyzing the information, and interpreting and recording relevant information (Bengtsson, 2016). The issue of validity was considerably addressed in this study. In particular, validity referred to the determination of the accuracy of the findings, such as by using “yes or no” questions on whether the approach contributed to decreasing the psychological impact, as well as the human losses and economic damages, resulting from disasters. In addition, two external auditors reviewed the report.

Regarding the data collection, the research made use of professional search engines, including Google.com, Yahoo.com, ScienceDirect, Oxford University Press, EBSCOhost, and several Korean websites. Among these, the search results of Google.com and Yahoo.com provided more documents on the topic than did the other search engines. The keywords used included “shamanism in Korea (Hanguk mugyo),” “shamanism and psychology (mugyo and simli),” “shamanism and secularism (mugyo and sesokjuii),” “shamanism and disaster management (mugyo and jaenangwanli),” and "role of shamanism during COVID-19 outbreak (corona sidae mugyo yokhal).” The criterion for including or excluding text data from articles, books, official documents, and websites in the literature review was whether or not the specific text was highly related to Korean shamanism, disaster management, or appropriate implications. The research team paid considerable attention to outlining specific inclusion/exclusion criteria given their crucial role in obtaining relevant data for the study.

As shown in Fig. 1, the research results indicated the need to supplement the secularism approach with the psychological impact mitigation approach in Korea. Specifically, these two approaches were systematically examined to identify and then select appropriate variables for the analysis of shamanism in the field of Korean disaster management. Several variables were initially identified, such as shamans and pupils, mass media, clients, national ideologies, and cultural factors. Finally, four stakeholders were chosen as analytical variables, namely; professional shamans, community leaders, educators and researchers, and disaster victims.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Analytical framework

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Some theoretical principles were considered in the selection of the appropriate analytical variables. Among them, comprehensiveness was deemed a much more important consideration. A comprehensive framework of shamanism was outlined, without which this study would have failed to achieve its original goal of associating the practice with disaster management (Korkmaz, 2017). Each of the four stakeholders had a reasonable justification for its inclusion in the category of comprehensive shamanism in relation to disaster management.

Professional shamans, as basic players, are the parties directly involved in the field. Community leaders have generally led the direction of shamanism from a distance, whereas educators and researchers have indirectly supported or criticized the trend of shamanism. Disaster victims, as major clients, associate with professional shamans in their relationship with community leaders, and educators and researchers. Hence, without any of these four stakeholders, it would be difficult to describe the whole process of Korean shamanism in this work.

Secularism Approach

Professional Shamans

Some individuals, not only female practitioners (mudang) but also male practitioners (baksu mudang), have become professional shamans—either hereditary or possessed ones (Szczepanski, 2020). Hereditary shamans become professionals by following in the footsteps of their ancestors, whereas possessed shamans become professionals because of their shamanic illness. Shamanic illness (or shamanic disease), which oppresses or afflicts a future shaman, is believed to be the call of spirits. Possessed shamans believe that if they had not become shamans, their family or relatives would have suffered severe affliction, including death. In this context, a person becomes a shaman not by education but by being chosen by the gods.

During the period of pandemic response to COVID-19, some Koreans have continued to consult with their favorite shamans for various purposes (Kuhn, 2021). As shown in Fig. 2, the number of shamans has increased sharply in recent years, growing sixfold between 1983 and 2018. This increase is attributed to a number of reasons, including the high extent of corruption in major religions, the lack of trust in Buddhism and Christianity, and the absence of official requirements for becoming professional shamans (Choe, 2007; Seo and Klavins, 2019). More importantly, becoming a professional shaman provides an opportunity to gain financial benefits, which is particularly vital under an economic recession, such as the economic decline during the COVID-19 outbreak. Even college graduates can become shamans by carrying out shamanic rites (called gut) for the purpose of fortune-telling or to fulfill the various secular desires of their clients.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Number of shamans per 1000 Koreans. Sources (Kim, 2018a, b; Korean Shaman Association, 2021)

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Community Leaders

Community leaders in Korea include business executives, politicians, and other decision-makers. Although they do not officially proclaim their reliance on shamans or shamanism, these community leaders often visit their favorite shamans for secular reasons (Tharoor, 2016). In particular, many leaders invest time and money in seeking advice from shamans when making important decisions in their lives. For example, some business executives in conglomerates (chaebol), such as Samsung and Hyundai, frequently turn to shamans to help them deal with problems in both business and personal affairs. Lee Byung-Chul, the founder of Samsung Group, hires Baek Woon-Hak, a shaman specializing in physiognomy, to carry out interviews with employees (Onepark, 2018).

Former Korean president Park Geun-hye secretly hired the female shaman Choi Soon-Sil and sought advice from her on many aspects of national policy, such as culture, sports, and military policies, as well as in writing presidential speeches. During the disaster response efforts after the sinking of the ferry MV Sewol in 2014, the president did not do anything significant except to listen to and interact with a shaman (Doucette, 2017; BBC News, 2018). In light of the drowning of some high school students during the said disaster, the president, along with her shaman, was impeached and then dethroned. The two are currently imprisoned for corruption.

Educators and Researchers

The majority of teachers in Korean elementary, middle, and high schools teach their students mainly the negative aspects of shamans or shamanism under the slogan of enlightenment. In general, these teachers believe that shamanism is based not on science but on superstition, a conviction supported by textbooks. Thus, they emphasize the secularism approach to shamans and shamanism. Other professional lecturers and trainers similarly focus on the negative aspects of shamanism.

In contrast with educators, researchers study both the negative and the positive aspects of shamanism and describe the various facets of shamans or shamanism in Korea. In addition, they examine several factors regarding secular shamanism. Some psychologists have indicated the psychological healing effect of shamanism through music, dance, and paintings (Hitty, 2011). However, they account for a minority in the research field because most studies have been devoted to the application of the secularism approach.

Disaster Victims

Shamans in Western countries live in remote places. However, several Korean shamans live as ordinary residents and make their living within communities (Eng, 2018). Although some people rarely visit shamans, many others have developed the practice of visiting nearby shamans to consult with them regarding their troubles and wishes in life, such as overcoming economic problems, finding a cure for illness, and having children. In other words, individuals can consult their favorite shamans for any secular purpose.

The official procedures of disaster management do not stipulate that disaster victims or their families should be approached or treated by a shaman during or after the occurrence of a disaster. Hence, the role of shamans and shamanism in the field of disaster management has not been addressed at all. In reality, many disaster victims are willing to consult with their preferred shamans in one way or another. For instance, several thousand people, along with famous shamans, gather together each year to remember the victims of the MV Sewol ferry sinking (Lee, 2017). Clearly, there is a gap between the official policy and the real-life domain.

Psychological Impact Mitigation Approach

Professional Shamans

According to the Korean Shaman Association, the increase in the number of shamans is not a detrimental factor because shamans contribute to the development of the society. Moreover, it is not a bad thing that many shamans earn money from performing rites or fortune-telling because, like other people, shamans desire economic independence, which is a fundamental need (Yun, 2019). However, in their consultations with their clients, shamans should address the subject of psychological impact mitigation in a more professional manner than is currently being done.

Hence, shamans may further practice sitkimgut for the psychological healing of their clients. Sitkim refers to soothing and purifying dead spirits, whereas gut is a shamanic ritual. Sitkimgut helps disaster victims (or the family of those who have died) to vent, cleanse, and find meaning in their anger, sadness, regret, depression, emotional conflicts, and trauma (Lee and Kim, 2017). While singing and dancing on a straw cutter, the shaman acts as a mediator between death and life or as a facilitator toward psychological impact mitigation in the field of disaster management.

Community Leaders

Korea requires leadership to achieve a high level of change in disaster management in the community. A change in leadership is needed to motivate others to take concrete steps by relying on their vision, resources, and motivation (Orridge, 2009; You, 2020). At the same time, the change should ideally last a long time. Without such change in leadership, Korea cannot shift to the psychological impact mitigation approach.

To elaborate, community leaders do not need to hide their reliance on shamans and shamanism, which is neither a criminal activity nor an ethical violation. Rather, in disclosing their relationship with shamans, they may help improve the perception of shamanism among their fellow residents in the community. In particular, community leaders, such as business executives and elected politicians, may transform shamanism into an effective tool for psychological impact mitigation by officially investing in it.

Educators and Researchers

The fact that teachers, lecturers, and trainers in Korea teach primarily the negative aspects of shamanism to their students is not right, simply because such unbalanced education is inappropriate. Shamanism has both negative and positive aspects. Contrary to its negative image in the society, the practice has substantially contributed to the development of disaster management. Therefore, educators need to teach all aspects of shamanism, including its role in psychological impact mitigation.

Yang Jong-Sung, an educator and shaman, founded the Museum of Shamanism in 2013. This is considered as the first shamanism museum in Korea, with more than 3000 items on exhibit, including shaman costumes, paintings, knifes, spears, amulets, pagodas, and divination tools. According to Yang, “the Museum of Shamanism would help motivate not only shaman students but also other students to study both the negative aspects and the positive aspects of shamanism through its display of tangible and intangible heritage” (The Museum of Shamanism, 2021).

Shamans believe that the spirit world has the ability to punish or heal disaster victims. This may be explained by not only psychologists but also biochemists, given that the ability of shamans to move from the physical to the spiritual world is related to biochemistry-induced processes. Besides, quantum physicists hold that everything in the universe consists of not only materials but also spirits, which are built up by a stream of energy (Ghani, 2016). In this regard, shamans have obtained relevant information in the field of quantum physics, which they use to heal disaster victims. Future research may further examine this area in relation to psychological impact mitigation.

Disaster Victims

A psychological reaction refers to an instinctive reaction to a stimulus. When people go through terrible disasters, they accordingly experience a kind of psychological and physiological reaction (Power, 2018). Although the exact degree of psychological reaction differs among individuals, disaster victims generally go through a distinctive emotional phase during or after the occurrence of a disaster. The current outbreak of COVID-19 leads to various types of emotional turbulence. The higher the extent of disruption experienced by disaster victims, the more intense their psychological reaction. Hence, it is natural for disaster victims or their families to seek advice from shamans to assist them in disaster management.

At present, Korea is oriented more toward dealing with the physical impacts of a disaster without adequately addressing its psychological impact (Lee et al., 2020). Therefore, the nation should more systematically provide the alternative of psychological impact mitigation for disaster victims. In particular, this should address the connection between shamans and disaster victims, with the support of official disaster management policy.

Major Implications for Asian Countries

A number of disasters have continuously occurred not only in Korea but also in Asian nations. In particular, the psychological impact of COVID-19 on the vast majority of people in the region has been extremely severe (Cielo et al., 2021). Because of social restrictions or lockdown measures, young people have developed psychological symptoms, such as depression, anxiety, and stress, and thus need tailored or structured psychological support. In addition, many adults have sought psychological support due to COVID-19–related quarantine or isolation. They, too, need psychological intervention (Jassim et al., 2021).

The nature of shamanism in each region has been somewhat different or confusing due to the various meanings or connotations of the term “shaman.” In another sense, each region has developed a unique type of shamanism within its own environment. Nevertheless, the concept of shamanism has been widely recognized and has spread to many regions in the twenty-first century, particularly with the help of information and communication technology (Winkelman, 2013). Similarly to Korea, Asian nations should flexibly study the role of shamanism particularly during the outbreak of COVID-19. The emergence of various perspectives would contribute to the positive development of shamanism in the field of transnational disaster management.

Shamanism has never been a mainstream subject of discussion in the field of international disaster management. In Asian nations, it is still considered as a relatively primitive cultural practice. However, the role of shamanism in relation to disaster management has been potentially exposed to the public (Ross, 2015). Considering that shamanism is based on the natural world, including not only materials but also spirits, the practice has come to influence the psychology of all stakeholders. The application of shamanism in disaster mitigation may thus provide real proof of the efficacy of the practice.

Human behavior includes the physical, emotional, mental, and social activities of an individual throughout his or her lifetime. It reflects the relationship between cause and effect, which is often complicated. Hence, the scope of human behavior, particularly in the modern society, is very diverse and complex. The belief in and the perception of the role of shamans and shamanism depend on human behavior as well. Some people may regard shamanism as a means toward achieving various goals, whereas others may view it as a tool toward decreasing a specific impact.

With the above analysis of two distinctive approaches in mind, it is inevitable for Korea to enlarge or supplement the secularism approach with the psychological impact mitigation approach in the field of disaster management. Generally, the secularism approach has clearly developed its own cultural advantages, in the same way as the psychological impact mitigation approach has primarily addressed healing and medicine effects. They are not opposite entities in their nature. Rather, they maintain supplementary relationship, which is healthy to achieve the goal of disaster management (Torri and Rache, 2021). In summary, the combination of the two helps one utilize both Korean traditional theories and Western psychological studies.

To facilitate the supplementation, each Asian country should work toward changing the behavior of all stakeholders. Behavioral change refers to the modification or transformation of diverse human behaviors. In general, individuals find it difficult to change behaviors that have been set for a long time. Nonetheless, stakeholders in the field have to improve on several factors, such as patience, behavioral knowledge, and the environment around the issue of shamanism, toward achieving behavioral change (Mulder, 2021).

Besides, Asian nations need to address the role of shamanism in the field of disaster management, particularly as a culture that includes all aspects of each region (Priya, 2012). At the same time, each stakeholder in disaster management must contribute to improving the role of shamanism in the field by addressing its own challenges. Without the effort of each stakeholder, the role of shamanism in each region cannot be determined.

Disaster management has been strongly influenced by the cultural competency of each region. In this context, every nation needs to enhance its cultural competency toward shamanism (Marsella and Christopher, 2004). To elaborate, Asian countries must improve the competency of the shamanic culture in disaster management while promoting shamanism as a positive culture. When shamanism is only influenced by secularism in the region, it will not be able to play a competent role in disaster management.

For example, some Japanese individuals have tried to cope with the impact of COVID-19 by referring to shamanic spirituality as a culture (Rivadossi, 2021). The number of COVID-19 cases in Japan rapidly increased around the Tokyo Olympics 2020. Some Japanese shamans have maintained their relationship with their clients, stressing the significance of the interconnectedness of the human body, the local community, and nature. Many people have also expressed willingness to consult with their favorite shamans. Although shamanic spirituality cannot be considered as a game changer during the crisis, its application can certainly be beneficial to individuals, interpersonal relationships, and the society.

Shamans in East Kalimantan, Indonesia, have tried to relieve the extent of psychological impact among local residents by carrying out shamanic rituals (Naem and Llewellyn, 2021). Shamans believe that the coronavirus is a creature with a spirit, which they seek to dispel through the performance of rituals. Similarly, a large shamanic ceremony with many flags has been carried out, with shamans providing various kinds of offerings, such as holy water, rice flour, and other items, to appease the coronavirus. During this ceremony, shamans continually burn incense and recite mantras.

Western society has evolved neo-shamanism by applying shamanic techniques as a system of healing (Braun, 2010; Itzhak, 2015). Under neo-shamanism, individuals rely on the extra-material world (or non-ordinary reality), which combines the physical and the spiritual world, toward assisting humans. Asian nations may consider the supplementation of secularism with psychological impact mitigation as a kind of neo-shamanism. By combining secularism with psychological healing, as in the case of Korea, neo-shamanism will likely prevail in Asia.

As Bohr argued against Einstein’s general theory of relativity, this world consists of not only matter but also consciousness. This is known in physics as the observer effect, which considers the interplay between real events and related observation. Every day in human life arises from both matter and consciousness at the same time (Walker, 2000). Therefore, neo-shamanism needs to more clearly embody the interrelation between matter and consciousness in its theoretical process. The field of disaster management should not operate only under mechanical principles. Rather, it should be supplemented by supernatural powers.

In addressing the combination of two approaches through neo-shamanism, disaster management may help facilitate growth in the field (Money, 1997). Basically, the improvement of not only secularism but also psychological impact mitigation has been directly or indirectly linked with the perspective of growth. Both secularism and shamanic healing create a familiar and strong image for disaster victims and other stakeholders and thus promote sustainable development for all.

To facilitate the supplementation, all stakeholders in Asian nations have to join diverse shamanism networks in the region (Society for Shamanic Practice, 2019). In particular, through the use of the Internet, mobile phones, and other devices, various stakeholders may further exchange information on the relationship between shamanism and disaster management in a timely manner. In this way, shamans throughout Asia may ultimately develop better techniques or cross-cultural methods for the supplementation in disaster management.

Conclusion

Shamanism falls under the category of local knowledge or indigenous psychology and may even be considered as a national treasure. This study explored the role of shamanism in the field of Korean disaster management by comparing two approaches: secularism and psychological impact mitigation. The results obtained by considering four stakeholders, namely, professional shamans, community leaders, educators and researchers, and disaster victims, indicate that the present work has achieved its objective.

The key finding of this research is that Korea needs to enhance its current secularism approach with the psychological impact mitigation approach in the near future. The nation does not need to hide the reality of shamanism in the field of disaster management. Rather, it must officially integrate the role of shamanism into disaster management procedures toward the goal of mitigating the psychological impact of disasters. The supplementation of two approaches may be considered as a good alternative measure against the impact of COVID-19 as well. To implement this, each of the four stakeholders have to carry out their designated roles and responsibilities.

Many Korean researchers have attempted to analyze shamanism within their respective subject areas. However, no study has rigorously examined the role of shamanism in the field of disaster management. Neither has the relationship between shamanism and the psychological impact of disasters been explored. Therefore, this study expands the scope of the existing literature in the field of disaster management, in particular by considering several issues of shamanism. Another notable contribution of this pioneering research is that it provides important implications for Asian nations.

Shamans and shamanism are a relatively new topic in the field of disaster management, regardless of national boundaries. Therefore, researchers may further investigate the role of shamanism in disaster management in Asia. In particular, considering the indispensable role of female shamans in both the secularism approach and the psychological impact mitigation approach during shamanistic rituals, their evolution and relevance, as well as other disaster management issues, may be systematically examined. These analyses will provide an opportunity for myth-shattering explorations in Asia.

In addition, Korean researchers may apply a comparative perspective in cooperation with researchers in Asian nations, in particular from the viewpoint of quantum physics, biochemistry, and other scientific fields, toward maximizing the effect of interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary approaches. Also, Korean researchers will delve into qualitative researches with first person experiential focus with not only shamans but also disaster victims. In the process, new research opportunities may emerge, or information exchanges may be further enhanced, toward achieving the ultimate goal of effective international disaster management.