Abstract
Lead (Pb) is a common heavy metal contaminant in the environment, and it may perturb autophagy and cause neurodegeneration. Although sodium para-aminosalicylic (PAS-Na) has been shown to protect the brain from lead-induced toxicity, the mechanisms associated with its efficacy have yet to be fully understood. In this study, we evaluated the efficacy of PAS-Na in attenuating the neurotoxic effects of lead, as well as the specific mechanisms that mediate such protection. Lead exposure resulted in weight loss and injury to the liver and kidney, and PAS-Na had a protective effect against this damage. Both short-term and subchronic lead exposure impaired learning ability, and this effect was reversed by PAS-Na intervention. Lead exposure also perturbed autophagic processes through the modulation of autophagy-related factors. Short-term lead exposure downregulated LC3 and beclin1 and upregulated the expression of p62; subchronic lead exposure upregulated the expression of LC3, beclin1, and P62. It follows that PAS-Na had an antagonistic effect on the activation of the above autophagy-related factors. Overall, our novel findings suggest that PAS-Na can protect the rat cortex from lead-induced toxicity by regulating autophagic processes.
Graphical Abstract
(1) Short-term lead exposure inhibits autophagy, whereas subchronic lead exposure promotes autophagy. (2) PAS-NA ameliorated the abnormal process of lead-induced autophagy, which had a protective effect on the cerebral cortex.
Similar content being viewed by others
Availability of Data and Materials
All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.
References
Cai QL et al (2021) Impact of lead exposure on thyroid status and IQ performance among school-age children living nearby a lead-zinc mine in China. Neurotoxicology 82:177–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuro.2020.10.010
Carocci A et al (2016) Lead toxicity, antioxidant defense and environment. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 238:45–67. https://doi.org/10.1007/398_2015_5003
Chu BX et al (2018) Interplay between autophagy and apoptosis in lead(II)-induced cytotoxicity of primary rat proximal tubular cells. J Inorg Biochem 182:184–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2018.02.015
Chung KM et al (2019) Alzheimer’s disease and the autophagic-lysosomal system. Neurosci Lett 697:49–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2018.05.017
de Souza ID, de Andrade AS, Dalmolin RJS (2018) Lead-interacting proteins and their implication in lead poisoning. Crit Rev Toxicol 48(5):375–386. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408444.2018.1429387
Deng XF et al (2009) Effects of sodium para-aminosalicylic acid on hippocampal ultramicro-structure of subchronic lead-exposed rats. J Toxicol 23(03):213–216. https://doi.org/10.16421/j.cnki.1002-3127.2009.03.011
Ghosh A et al (2015) Activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α induces lysosomal biogenesis in brain cells: implications for lysosomal storage disorders. J Biol Chem 290(16):10309–10324. https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M114.610659
Gu X et al (2019) Pb disrupts autophagic flux through inhibiting the formation and activity of lysosomes in neural cells. Toxicol in Vitro 55:43–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tiv.2018.11.010
Guan S et al (2020) Combined toxic effects of CBNPs and Pb on rat alveolar macrophage apoptosis and autophagy flux. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 205:111062. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.111062
Gustafsson ÅB, Dorn GW II (2019) Evolving and expanding the roles of mitophagy as a homeostatic and pathogenic process. Physiol Rev 99(1):853–892. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00005.2018
He J-T et al (2017) Research progress on lead poisoning and development of deleading reagents. Chin J Mod Med 27(14):5
He SN et al (2017) Effect of sodium para-aminosalicylic acid on apoptosis of PC12 cells induced by lead-exposure. Chin J Pharmacol Toxicol 31(02):159–164
Hernberg S (2000) Lead poisoning in a historical perspective. Am J Ind Med 38(3):244–254. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-0274(200009)38:3%3c244::aid-ajim3%3e3.0.co;2-f
Hong LY, Lin B (2003) Brain regions associated with learning and memory. Bran Camp Frist Mil Med Univ 02:153–154
Huang Y et al (2020) Lead exposure induces cell autophagy via blocking the Akt/mTOR signaling in rat astrocytes. J Toxicol Sci 45(9):559–567. https://doi.org/10.2131/jts.45.559
Jin SM, Youle RJ (2012) PINK1- and Parkin-mediated mitophagy at a glance. J Cell Sci 125(Pt 4):795–799. https://doi.org/10.1242/jcs.093849
Khalil B et al (2015) PINK1-induced mitophagy promotes neuroprotection in Huntington’s disease. Cell Death Dis 6(1):e1617. https://doi.org/10.1038/cddis.2014.581
Li ZC et al (2022) Sodium para-aminosalicylic acid ameliorates lead-induced hippocampal neuronal apoptosis by suppressing the activation of the IP(3)R-Ca(2+)-ASK1-p38 signaling pathway. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 241:113829. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.113829
Liu H et al (2017) From autophagy to mitophagy: the roles of P62 in neurodegenerative diseases. J Bioenerg Biomembr 49(5):413–422. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10863-017-9727-7
Lu B-L, Shi J-F, Zhou J (2018) Effect of lead exposure time on expressions of autophagy proteins ATG5, Beclin1 and LC3B in cerebral cortex. Chin J Mod Med 28(35):5
Lu LL et al (2022) Therapeutic effects of sodium para-aminosalicylic acid on cognitive deficits and activated ERK1/2-p90(RSK)/NF-κB inflammatory pathway in Pb-exposed rats. Biol Trace Elem Res 200(6):2807–2815. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-021-02874-0
Luo R et al (2020) Activation of PPARA-mediated autophagy reduces Alzheimer disease-like pathology and cognitive decline in a murine model. Autophagy 16(1):52–69. https://doi.org/10.1080/15548627.2019.1596488
Luo Y et al (2016) The efect of PAS-Na on the learning memory and amino acid neurotransmitter content of leadinduced young rats. J Toxicol 30(06):444–447. https://doi.org/10.16421/j.cnki.1002-3127.2016.06.009
Ma K et al (2018) LC3-II may mediate ATR-induced mitophagy in dopaminergic neurons through SQSTM1/p62 pathway. Acta Biochim Biophys Sin (shanghai) 50(10):1047–1061. https://doi.org/10.1093/abbs/gmy091
Matsuda N et al (2010) PINK1 stabilized by mitochondrial depolarization recruits Parkin to damaged mitochondria and activates latent Parkin for mitophagy. J Cell Biol 189(2):211–221. https://doi.org/10.1083/jcb.200910140
Metaxakis A, Ploumi C, Tavernarakis N (2018) Autophagy in age-associated neurodegeneration. Cells. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells7050037
Mizushima N, Komatsu M (2011) Autophagy: renovation of cells and tissues. Cell 147(4):728–741. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2011.10.026
Mostafa GA et al (2016) The positive association between elevated blood lead levels and brain-specific autoantibodies in autistic children from low lead-polluted areas. Metab Brain Dis 31(5):1047–1054. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11011-016-9836-8
Narendra DP et al (2010) PINK1 is selectively stabilized on impaired mitochondria to activate Parkin. PLoS Biol 8(1):e1000298. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1000298
Patrick L (2006) Lead toxicity, a review of the literature. Part 1: exposure, evaluation, and treatment. Altern Med Rev 11(1):2–22
Schaaf MB et al (2016) LC3/GABARAP family proteins: autophagy-(un)related functions. Faseb J 30(12):3961–3978. https://doi.org/10.1096/fj.201600698R
Scoville WB, Milner B (1957) Loss of recent memory after bilateral hippocampal lesions. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 20(1):11–21. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.20.1.11
Strappazzon F et al (2011) Mitochondrial BCL-2 inhibits AMBRA1-induced autophagy. Embo J 30(7):1195–1208. https://doi.org/10.1038/emboj.2011.49
Strappazzon F et al (2015) AMBRA1 is able to induce mitophagy via LC3 binding, regardless of PARKIN and p62/SQSTM1. Cell Death Differ 22(3):419–432. https://doi.org/10.1038/cdd.2014.139
Sui L et al (2015) Lead toxicity induces autophagy to protect against cell death through mTORC1 pathway in cardiofibroblasts. Biosci Rep. https://doi.org/10.1042/bsr20140164
Yin J et al (2018) Doxorubicin-induced mitophagy and mitochondrial damage is associated with dysregulation of the PINK1/parkin pathway. Toxicol in Vitro 51:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tiv.2018.05.001
Zhang L (2018) The effect of early-life exposure to lead on nueronal autophagic intermediaters in mice brain. Zhengzhou University
Zhang Z et al (2016) Autophagy in neurodegenerative diseases and metal neurotoxicity. Neurochem Res 41(1–2):409–422. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11064-016-1844-x
Zhao YS et al (2022) Sodium Para-aminosalicylic acid inhibits lead-induced neuroinflammation in brain cortex of rats by modulating SIRT1/HMGB1/NF-κB pathway. Neurochem Res. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11064-022-03739-1
Zou H et al (2020) Effects of cadmium and/or lead on autophagy and liver injury in rats. Biol Trace Elem Res 198(1):206–215. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-020-02045-7
Funding
Funding support was provided by grants from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC 81773476).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
LLW: conceptualization, investigation, formal analysis, writing original draft, and writing—review and editing. XJZ: investigation, methodology, formal analysis, and data curation. YYF and YL: revision and polishing of the paper. YSZ, CLG, and JJL: investigation. SYO: investigation and supervision. MA: revision and editing. YMJ: supervision, project administration, and funding acquisition.
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Ethics Approval
All animal procedures performed in this study were performed strictly according to the international standards of animal care guidelines and have been approved by the Animal Care and Use Committee of Guangxi Medical University.
Consent to Participate
Not applicable.
Consent for Publication
The paper has been approved by all authors for publication.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Wang, Ll., Zhu, Xj., Fang, Yy. et al. Sodium Para-Aminosalicylic Acid Modulates Autophagy to Lessen Lead-Induced Neurodegeneration in Rat Cortex. Neurotox Res 41, 1–15 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12640-022-00615-2
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12640-022-00615-2