Abstract
Objective
This study, by taking a holistic approach, investigates the relationships between taste, smell sensitivity and food preference with prognostic (endogenous and health) factors including age, gender, genetic taste markers, body mass, cigarette smoking, and number of drugs used.
Design
Cross sectional study.
Setting
Northern Italy.
Participants
203 healthy subjects (160 women/43 men; mean age: 58.2±19.8 years) were examined.
Measurements
Individual taste sensitivity was determined by saccharose, sodium chloride, acetic acid and caffeine solutions and by 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) responsiveness test. Olfactory sensitivity has been assessed by «Sniffin’ Sticks». Four tag Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in regions of interest were genotyped. Factor analysis and multivariate regression were performed for scaling food preferences and screening prognostic factors, respectively.
Results
Increasing age is associated with decreased responsiveness to NaCl (P=0.001), sweet solutions (P=0.044), and smell perception (P<0.001). Concerning the food preferences, elderly like the “vegetables” and “fruits” but dislike “spicy” more than younger. Regarding number of drugs taken, there is a significant negative effect on smell perception (P<0.001). In addition, drugs reduce both the “vegetables foods” score (P=0.002) and the “milk-product foods” score (P=0.027). With respect to Body Mass Index (BMI), only a significant effect was shown, on sweet perception (P=0.006). Variation in taste receptor genes can give rise to differential perception of sweet, acid and bitter tastes. No effect of gender and smoking was observed.
Conclusions
Our study suggested that age, genetic markers, BMI and drugs use are the factors which affect taste and smell perception and food preferences.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Buck L, Axel R. A novel multigene family may encode odorant receptors: a molecular basis for odor recognition. Cell 1991;65:175–187.
Adler E, Hoon MA, Mueller KL, Chandrashekar J, Ryba NJ, Zuker CS. A novel family of mammalian taste receptors. Cell 2000;100:693–702.
Bachmanov AA, Li X, Reed DR, Ohmen JD, Li S, Chen Z, Tordoff MG, de Jong PJ, Wu C, West DB, Chatterjee A, Ross DA, Beauchamp GK. Positional cloning of the mouse saccharin preference (Sac) locus. Chem Senses 2001;26:925–933.
Kitagawa M, Kusakabe Y, Miura H, Ninomiya Y, Hino A. Molecular genetic identification of a candidate receptor gene for sweet taste. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2001;283:236–242.
Li X, Staszewski L, Xu H, Durick K, Zoller M, Adler E. Human receptors for sweet and umami taste. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002;99:4692–4696.
Matsunami H, Montmayeur JP, Buck LB. A family of candidate taste receptors in human and mouse. Nature 2000;404:601–604.
Montmayeur JP, le Coutre J. Fat Detection: Taste, Texture, and Post Ingestive Effects. Boca Raton (FL), CRC Press, 2010.
Nelson G, Hoon MA, Chandrashekar J, Zhang Y, Ryba NJ, Zuker CS. Mammalian sweet taste receptors. Cell 2001;106:381–390.
Sainz E, Korley JN, Battey JF, Sullivan SL. Identification of a novel member of the T1R family of putative taste receptors. J Neurochem 2001;77:896–903.
Toussaint N, de Roon M, van Campen JP, Kremer S, Boesveldt S. Loss of Olfactory Function and Nutritional Status in Vital Older Adults and Geriatric Patients. Chem Senses 2015;40:197–203.
Kremer S, Holthuysen N, Boesveldt S. The influence of olfactory impairment in vital, independently living older persons on their eating behaviour and food liking. Food Qual Prefer 2014;38:30–39.
Schiffman SS. Taste and smell losses in normal aging and disease. JAMA 1997;278:1357–1362.
Morley JE. Anorexia and weight loss in older persons. J Gerontol A Bio Sci Med Sci 2003;58:131–137.
Donini LM, Dominguez LJ, Barbagallo M, Cucinotta D, Fiorito A, Inelmen EM, Sergi G, Enzi G, Cannella C. Senile anorexia in different geriatric settings in Italy. JNHA 2011;15:775–781.
Bertoli S, Laureati M, Battezzati A, Bergamaschi V, Cereda E, Spadafranca A, Vignati L, Pagliarini E. Taste sensitivity, nutritional status and metabolic syndrome: Implication in weight loss dietary interventions. World J Diabetes 2014;5:717–723.
Iwamoto T, Hanyu H, Umahara T. Age-related changes of sensory system. Nihon Rinsho 2013;71:1720–1725.
Solemdal K, Sandvik L, Willumsen T, Mowe M. Taste ability in hospitalized older people compared with healthy, age-matched controls. Gerodontology 2014;31:42–48.
Spitzer ME. Taste acuity in institutionalized and non-institutionalized elderly men. J Gerontol 1988;43:71–74.
Yamauchi Y, Endo S, Yoshimura I. Whole mouth gustatory test (Part 2)-Effect of aging, gender and smoking on the taste threshold. Nihon Jibiinkoka Gakkai Kaiho 1995;98:1125–1134.
Sulmont-Rossé C, Maître I, Amand M, Symoneaux R, Van Wymelbeke V, Caumon E, Tavarès J, Issanchou S. Evidence for Different Patterns of Chemosensory Alterations in the Elderly Population: Impact of Age Versus Dependency. Chem Senses 2015;40:153–164.
Fikentscher R, Roseburg B, Spinar H, Bruchmüller W. Loss of taste in the elderly: sex differences. Clin Otolaryngol Allied Sci 1977;2:183–189.
Hummel T, Erras A, Kobal G. A test for the screening of taste function. Rhinology 1997a;35:146–148.
Hyde RJ, Feller RP, Sharon IM. Tongue brushing, dentifrice, and age effects on taste and smell. Journal Dent Res 1981;60:1730–1734.
Schiffman SS, Suggs MS, Simon SA. Astringent compounds suppress taste responses in gerbil. Brain Res 1992;595:1–11.
Suliburska J, Duda G, Pupek-Musialik D. Effect of tobacco smoking on taste sensitivity in adults. Przeg Lek 2004;61:1174–1176.
Konstantinidis I, Chatziavramidis A, Printza A, Metaxas S, Constantinidis J. Effects of smoking on taste: assessment with contact endoscopy and taste strips. Laryngoscope 2010;120:1958–1963.
Mainland J, Matsunami H. Taste perception: how sweet it is (to be transcribed by you). Curr Biol 2009;19:R655–R656.
Kim UK, Drayna D. Genetics of Individual differences in bitter taste perception: lessons from the PTC gene. Clin Gen 2005;67:275–280.
Sugino Y, Umemoto A, Mizutani S. Insensitivity to the bitter taste of chloramphenicol: an autosomal recessive trait. Genes Genet Syst 2002;77:59–62.
Wise PM, Hansen JL, Reed DR, Breslin PA. Twin study of the heritability of recognition thresholds for sour and salty taste. Chem Senses 2007;32:749–754.
Drayna D. Human taste genetics. Annu Rev Genomics Hum Genet 2005;6:217–235.
Shigemura N, Shirosaki S, Sanematsu K, Yoshida R, Ninomiya Y. Genetic and molecular basis of individual differences in human umami taste perception. PLoS ONE 2009;4:e6717.
Bufe B, Breslin PAS, Kuhn C, Reed DR, Tharp CD, Slack JP, Kim UK, Drayna D, Meyerhof W. The molecular basis of individual differences in phenylthiocarbamide and proylthiouracil bitterness perception. Curr Biol 2005;15:322–327.
Mennella JA, Pepino MY, Reed DR. Genetic and environmental determinants of bitter perception and sweet preferences. Pediatrics 2005;115:e216–e222.
Glanz K, Basi M, Maibach E, Goldberg J, Snyder D. Why Americans eat what they do. Taste, nutrition, cost, convenience, and weight control as influences on food consumption. JAMDA 1998;98:1118–1126.
De Mendonça SN, Brandão HC, Brandão WA, Quintino CA, De Francisco A, Teixeira E. Food preferences of middle aged and elderly subjects in a Brazilian city. J Nutr Health Aging 2013;17:130–135.
Doty RL, Shah M, Bromley SM. Drug-induced taste disorders. Drug Saf 2008;31:199–215.
Ligthart GJ, Corberand JX, Fournier C, Galanaud P, Hijmans W, Kennes B, Müller-Hermelink HK, Steinmann GG. Admission criteria for immunogerontological studies in man: the SENIEUR protocol. Mech Ageing Dev 1984;28:47–55.
Hummel T, Sekinger B, Wolf SR, Pauli E, Kobal G. ‘Sniffin’ sticks: olfactory performance assessed by the combined testing of odor identification, odor discrimination and olfactory threshold. Chem Senses 1997b;22:39–52.
Catanzaro D, Chesbro EC, Velkey AJ. Relationship between food preferences and PROP taster status of college students. Appetite 2013;68:124–131.
www.broad.mit.edu/mpg/haploview/
www.broad.mit.edu/mpg/tagger
Meyerhof W, Batram C, Kuhn C, Brockhoff A, Chudoba E, Bufe B, Appendino G, Behrens M. The molecular receptive ranges of human TAS2R bitter taste receptors. Chem Senses 2010;35:157–170.
Shirazi-Beechey SP, Daly K, Al-Rammahi M, Moran AW, Bravo D. Role of nutrientsensing taste 1 receptor (T1R) family members in gastrointestinal chemosensing. Br J Nutr 2014;111:S8–S15.
Patrikainen M, Pan P, Kulesskaya N, Voikar V, Parkkila S. The role of carbonic anhydrase VI in bitter taste perception: evidence from the Car6-/-mouse model. J Biomed Sci 2014;21:82.
Revelle W. psych: Procedures for Personality and Psychological Research, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, USA, 2013;http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=psych Version = 1.3.10.
Horn JL. A rationale and a test for the number of factors in factor analysis. Psychometrika 1965;30:179–185.
Velicer W. Determining the number of components from the matrix of partial correlations. Psychometrika 1976;41:321–327.
Johnson RA, Wichern DW. Applied multivariate statistical analysis. (5th ed.). Prentice Hall, Upper Saddler River, 2002.
Comrey A, Lee HB (1992) A first course in factor analysis. (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, 1992.
Fornell C, Larcker DF. Evaluating Structural Equation Models with Unobservable Variables and Measurement Error. J Market Res 1981;18:39–50.
McDonald RP. Test theory: A unified treatment. Mahwah, NJ, Erlbaum.
Rosseel Y. lavaan: An R Package for Structural Equation Modeling. J Stat Softw 2012;48:1–36.
Charlson ME Pompei P, Ales KL, MacKenzie CR. A new method of classifying prognostic comorbidity in longitudinal studies: development and validation. J Chronic Dis 1987;40:373–83.
Rolls BJ. Do chemosensory changes influence food intake in the elderly? Physiol Behav 1999; 66:193–197.
Imoscopi A, Inelmen EM, Sergi G, Miotto F, Manzato E. Taste loss in the elderly: epidemiology, causes and consequences. Aging Clin Exp Res 2012;24:570–579.
Stolarz-Skrzypek K. Sugar and salt in the pathogenesis of elevated blood pressure. Hypertension 2011;57:676–678.
Brown IJ, Stamler J, Van Horn L, Robertson CE, Chan Q, Dyer AR, Huang CC, Rodriguez BL, Zhao L, Daviglus ML, Ueshima H, Elliott P, International Study of Macro/Micronutrients and Blood Pressure Research Group. Sugar-sweetened beverage, sugar intake of individuals, and their blood pressure: international study of macro/micronutrients and blood pressure. Hypertension 2011;57:695–701.
Donaldson LF, Bennett L, Baic S, Melichar JK. Taste and weight: is there a link? Am J Clin Nutr 2009;90:800S-803S.
Doty RL, Shaman P, Applebaum SL, Giberson R, Siksorski L, Rosenberg L. Smell identification ability: changes with age. Science 1984;226:1441–1443.
Duffy VB, Backstrand JR, Ferris AM. Olfactory dysfunction and related nutritional risk in free-living, elderly women. J Am Diet Assoc 1995;95:879–884.
Murphy C, Schubert CR, Cruickshanks KJ, Klein BE, Klein R, Nondahl DM. Prevalence of olfactory impairment in older adults. JAMA 2002;288:2307–2312.
Ship JA, Weiffenbach JM. Age, gender, medical treatment, and medication effects on smell identification. J Gerontol 1993;48:M26–M32.
Doty RL, Petersen I, Mensah N, Christensen K. Genetic and environmental influences on odor identification ability in the very old. Psychol Aging 2011;26:864–871.
Brämerson A, Johansson L, Ek L, Nordin S, Bende M. Prevalence of olfactory dysfunction: the skövde population-based study. Laryngoscope 2004;114:733–737.
Karpa MJ, Gopinath B, Rochtchina E, Jie Jin W, Cumming RG, Sue CM, Mitchell P. Prevalence and neurodegenerative or other associations with olfactory impairment in an older community. J Aging Health 2010;22:154–168.
Hüttenbrink KB, Hummel T, Berg D, Gasser T, Hähner A. Olfactory dysfunction: common in later life and early warning of neurodegenerative disease. Dtsch Arztebl Int 2013;110:1–7.
Doty RL, Kamath V. The influences of age on olfaction: a review. Front Psychol 2014;5:20.
Westenhoefer J. Age and gender dependent profile of food choice. Forum Nutr 2005;57:44–51.
Drewnowski A. The science and complexity of bitter taste. Nutr Rev 2001;59:163–169.
Kossioni A, Bellou O. Eating habits in older people in Greece: the role of age, dental status and chewing difficulties. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 2011;52:197–201.
Doty RL, Cameron EL. Sex differences and reproductive hormone influences on human odor perception. Physiol Behav 2009;97:213–228.
Greenberg MI, Curtis JA, Vearrier D. The perception of odor is not a surrogate marker for chemical exposure: a review of factors influencing human odor perception. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2013;51:70–76.
Tepper BJ, White EA, Koelliker Y, Lanzara C, d’Adamo P, Gasparini P. Genetic variation in taste sensitivity to 6-n-propylthiouracil and its relationship to taste perception and food selection. Ann NY Acad Sci 2009;1170:126–139.
Feeney E, O’Brien S, Scannell A, Markey A, Gibney ER. Genetic variation in taste perception: does it have a role in healthy eating? Proc Nutr Soc 2011;70:135–143.
Small DM, Bender G, Veldhuizen MG, Rudenga K, Nachtigal D, Felsted J. The role of the human orbitofrontal cortex in taste and flavor processing. Ann NY Acad Sci 2007;1121:136–151.
Bartoshuk LM, Duffy VB, Hayes JE, Moskowitz HR, Snyder DJ. Psychophysics of sweet and fat perception in obesity: problems, solutions and new perspectives. Philos Trans R Soc London B 2006;361:1137–1148.
Salbe AD, Del Parigi A, Pratley RE, Drewnowski A, Tataranni PA. Taste preferences and body weight changes in an obesity-prone population. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;79:372–378.
Goldstein GL, Daun H, Tepper BJ. Adiposity in middle-aged women is associated with genetic taste blindness to 6-n-propylthiouracil. Obesity Res 2005;13:1017–1023.
Tepper BJ, Ullrich NV. Influence of genetic taste sensitivity to 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP), dietary restraint and disinhibition on body mass index in middle-aged women. Physiol Behav 2002;75:305–312.
Drewnowski A, Gomez-Carneros C. Bitter taste, phytonutrients, and the consumer: a review. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;72:1424–1435.
Drewnowski A, Almiron-Roig E. Human Perceptions and Preferences for Fat-Rich Foods. In: Montmayeur JP, le Coutre J (eds) Fat Detection: Taste, Texture, and Post Ingestive Effects. Boca Raton (FL), CRC Press, 2010.
Lumeng JC, Kaplan-Sanoff M, Shuman S, Kannan S. Head Start teachers’ perceptions of children’s eating behavior and weight status in the context of food scarcity. J Nutr Educ Behav 2008;40:237–243.
Keller KL, Tepper BJ. Inherited taste sensitivity to 6-n-propylthiouracil in diet and body weight in children. Obesity Res 2004;12:904–912.
Tepper BJ, Nurse RJ. Fat perception is related to PROP taster status. Physiol Behav 1997;1:949–954.
Hayes JE, Duffy VB. Revisiting sugar-fat mixtures: sweetness and creaminess vary with phenotypic markers of oral sensation. Chem Senses 2007;32:225–236.
Tepper BJ. Nutritional implications of genetic taste variation: the role of PROP sensitivity and other taste phenotypes. Annu Rev Nutr 2008;28:367–388.
Keller KL, Steinmann L, Nurse RJ, Tepper BJ. Genetic taste sensitivity to 6-n-propylthiouracil influences food preference and reported intake in preschool children. Appetite 2002;38:3–12.
Bramerson A, Nyman J, Nordin S, Bende M. Olfactory loss after head and neck cancer radiation therapy. Rhinology 2013;5:206–209.
Frye RE, Schwartz BS, Doty RL. Dose-related effects of cigarette smoking on olfactory function. JAMA 1990;2:233–236.
Katotomichelakis M, Balatsouras D, Tripsianis G, Davris S, Maroudias N, Danielides V, Simopoulos C. The effect of smoking on the olfactory function. Rhinology 2007;45:273–280.
Tuccori M, Lapi F, Testi A, Ruggiero E, Moretti U, Vannacci A, Bonaiuti R, Antonioli L, Fornai M, Giustarini G, Scollo C, Corona T, Ferrazin F, Sottosanti L, Blandizzi C. Drug-induced taste and smell alterations: a case/non-case evaluation of an italian database of spontaneous adverse drug reaction reporting. Drug safety 2011;34:849–859.
Schiffman SS, Zervakis J, Westall HL, Graham BG, Metz A, Bennett JL, Heald AE. Effect of antimicrobical and anti-inflammatory medications on the sense of taste. Physiol Behav 2000;69:3413–3424.
Bollen KA. Structural equations with latent variables. Wiley Series in Probability and Mathematical Statistics. USA, 1989.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Guido, D., Perna, S., Carrai, M. et al. Multidimensional evaluation of endogenous and health factors affecting food preferences, taste and smell perception. J Nutr Health Aging 20, 971–981 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12603-016-0703-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12603-016-0703-4