Introduction

In recent decades, liberal arts education (LAE) has experienced a resurgence in many institutions worldwide, with a noticeably strong presence in Asian societies (Godwin, 2015). Often regarded as a Western tradition and an American feature of higher education (Godwin & Altbach, 2016), LAE was brought to East Asian societies by early missionaries and developed in Christian universities in China, South Korea, and Japan in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (Jung et al., 2016). LAE in these institutions aimed at cultivating citizens that would serve the development of the country. Interestingly, the LAE in Chinese contexts in some institutions in contemporary society also shares a similar focus in its mission to cultivate students and instill in them a spirit of service, echoing the Christian tradition (Mou, 2022). Despite much research on the implementation and innovation of current LAE in various Asian contexts, few researchers have examined whether the traditions of former Christian universities have been carried on to some extent and have influenced the contemporary institutions in the development of their values and goals in relation to their LAE programs.

With influence from both North America and Europe, China’s modern higher education began to emerge with the establishment of Christian and Catholic institutions, such as missionary schools, in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (Hayhoe, 1999). Among them, 13 Christian universities and three Catholic institutions became renowned and influentialFootnote 1; they played an important role in higher education development in China (Lutz, 1971). They existed until the 1950s when China’s higher education shifted to follow the Soviet model of specialization. These institutions were closed and merged into other public institutions. The Christian institutions followed the American LAE model, aimed at cultivating “whole persons” for Chinese society (Hayhoe & Lu, 2010; Mou, 2020). Their LAE has a goal of cultivating the all-round development of students with both broad knowledge and professional skills (Mou, 2018). They offered a general education curriculum with a broad range of disciplines, including humanities, arts, sciences, and social sciences, with specific Chinese features, including courses on Chinese classics, history, philosophy, ethics, and literature with the goal of conveying traditional Chinese values (Mou, 2020). On the professional side, these universities offered programs as major and minor concentrations, integrating local features, such as agricultural programs in Lingnan University (Mou, 2020). Moreover, their features of LAE included an interdisciplinary approach, intercultural and inter-religious studies, as well as an interplay between Chinese and Western cultures (especially in the case of Yenching University) (Ng & Ng, 2023). Their campus buildings integrated both Western and Chinese architectural styles, contributing to the revival of classical Chinese architecture (Dong, 2023). Other research also examined the LAE tradition in these institutions with a focus on students’ theory-based exploration and fieldwork practice with the goal of serving local communities and rural areas in Fukien Christian University and Hwa Nan Women’s College (Wu, 2023).

Although these Christian universities were closed seventy years ago, their influence and legacy still have an impact on higher education in China (Ng et al., 2023). Some institutions carried on their legacy and have developed into universities with strong LAE traditions, specifically in Mainland China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan (Mou, 2021; Ng, 2001). The LAE models of the contemporary liberal arts universities in China featured broad knowledge, residential learning, close student-faculty relationships, small and more intimate classes, and extra-curricular activities, all with the goal of cultivating whole persons (Mou, 2022). This idea of cultivating students as whole persons that will serve and honor their society is a common feature and goal in both the former Christian universities and the current liberal arts institutions.

Using data from documents and interviews, this study examines the liberal arts tradition in terms of developing whole persons with a spirt of service in China’s former Christian universities. It further explores to what extent this legacy has been continued in relation to the development of LAE in contemporary universities in the following three Chinese societies: Mainland China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan. Other social factors are examined to determine their role in influencing the goals of LAE in developing responsible active citizens. The first part of the study, using archival documents, took four universities from the 13 former Christian universities in China to examine their liberal arts tradition for cultivating whole persons. The four universities are Ginling College, Yenching University, Lingnan University in Guangzhou, and West China Union University. The second part of the study, using interviews and document data, focused on the following three universities in the Greater China area related to the former Christian universities: Lingnan University in Hong Kong, Tunghai University in Taiwan, and Yuanpei College at Peking University in Mainland China. This part explored how the LAE in the three contemporary universities has been influenced by historical traditions and their current social contexts. It also examined whether, and to what extent, the spirit of service from the former Christian universities carried on to the mission and goals of present-day LAE, for the purpose of cultivating global citizens serving their communities.

This paper argues that the current LAE, with a focus on cultivating whole persons with a spirit of service or a sense of social responsibility, is, to some extent, a blend of the liberal arts tradition inherited from former Christian universities in China and the influence of social factors such as the Confucian tradition of whole person and the socialist view of education. This paper is organized in five sections: (1) history and background, (2) data and methodology, (3) findings, (4) discussion, and (5) conclusion. The study offers insight into how the elements of whole person development and cultivation from faith-based education contributes to today’s higher education development and goals of global citizen cultivation.

History and background

In the first half of the twentieth century, Christian universities in China, established by the North American missionaries, adapted American LAE into Chinese contexts with its distinctly different social and cultural traditions, endeavoring to cultivate graduates to serve China’s development (Mou, 2020). During the national higher education reform in Mainland China, these Christian universities were closed, and their faculty and departments merged into other public institutions. At that time, there was a specialized trend of design in higher education policy following the Soviet model (Hayhoe, 1999). The Christian universities played an important role in the development of modern higher education in China, with their special contribution in the area of higher education for women and training in modern medicine and nursing (Lutz, 1971). They also provided a model that influenced other institutions which were founded later (Wang, 2000). The influence of the Christian universities on Chinese society continued even after their closure and amalgamation into other institutions.

Origin and the historical social contexts

The historical causes for the burgeoning of Christian universities can be found in both the domestic and the international environment. The faith in Christianity served as the driving force that sent many young university graduates from North America to China to build missionary schools and Chinese missionary intellectuals to establish faith-based institutions (Lautz, 2009). The development of Christian universities was shaped by three historical turning points: the government registration in 1928, the post-war plan in 1943, and the nationwide reorganization in 1951 (Liu, 2009). These milestones divided the half-century period from their inception to their demise into three periods: the inception amid political chaos, the secularization in the late 1920s, and the post-war planning in the late 1940s.

The late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries witnessed great social and political changes in China. The imperial examination system, which served as the dominant method of recruiting civil officials for more than one thousand years, was abolished in 1905 to meet the urgent social needs of modern education in science and technology (Hayhoe, 2001). The last imperial dynasty, the Qing, collapsed in 1911. After that, China experienced decades of political turmoil and warfare until the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. Since the Treaty of Beijing (1860), foreign missionaries were permitted in China for missionary work, and church schools sprang up rapidly in the following decades (Wang, 2000). This signified the beginning of modern education in China. Entering the twentieth century, modern universities emerged and developed all over the country. Between 1911 and 1937, over one hundred public and private institutions were founded on the local, provincial, and national level (Hayhoe, 1999). Among these new higher education institutions, a unique group stood out: the Christian universities. These universities were established by missionaries from North America.

In North America, a surge of piety and activism, and a growing sense of religious and social duty, arose on many American college campuses in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. As a result, thousands of college graduates from across the United States and Canada joined foreign missionary work, mostly through the Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions (SVM). A great number of the student volunteers who went overseas served in China for Protestant missions by becoming teachers or faculty members in Christian schools and colleges (Lautz, 2009). The experiences of these missionaries shaped a Western-style education in the Chinese context and brought the Christian schools and colleges into existence. American foreign missions (specifically the SVM) were arguably the major external stimulus for the burgeoning of these universities. In addition, the mission societies from Canada and Great Britain also contributed significantly to the collaboration work of the Christian universities in China (Hayhoe & Lu, 2010).

Inspired by their faith, young graduates from well-known universities crossed the ocean to China, a foreign land with uncertainty and unknown obstacles, leaving their kith and kin behind (Lautz, 2009). The SVM candidates were well-educated and well-meaning young people with a mission to serve others and improve the world. As Lautz (2009) stated:

Many students approached the prospect of being missionaries with humility and quite often with some degree of uncertainty. Most believed they simply had no choice but to accept their duty as Christians: “This is God’s plan for my life and I know of none better for helping humanity and doing good,” wrote one candidate (p. 16).

At the same time, Chinese scholars and intellectuals also engaged in careers in education in the Christian universities. Two distinguished Catholic thinkers, Ma Xiangbo and Ying Lianzhi, contributed to Chinese higher education by initiating the establishment of two famous Catholic universities. They were educational entrepreneurs sharing the common vision that a modern university can serve as the transforming agent in a society and bring about radical change. Their farsighted unique vision originated from both a love of traditional Chinese culture and a strong commitment to Christian faith (Hayhoe, 1988).

Development stages

The period from 1900 to 1950 was not a happy one in Chinese history, with political upheaval, student movements, foreign invasion, and civil war. The Christian universities survived hardships and obstacles throughout this difficult period and then failed to survive the institutional reorganization in 1951, which finally terminated their mission in Mainland China.

In the 1920s, three movements (a student movement, an anti-Christian movement, and an anti-imperialism movement) were popular among students and young intellectuals, and these movements greatly impacted the teachings in Christian universities. It has been argued that the causes for these movements lay in the awakened awareness of the Chinese people that imperialism, together with foreigners’ privileged rights and sense of superiority over Chinese people, oppressed and humiliated the Chinese nation. In these Christian universities, what some missionaries preached was not the real Christian faith, but the superiority of Western culture, which stirred up antagonism among the students (Wang, 2000).

When the Nationalist Party gained power in 1928, the country was unified under its rule. To consolidate its hold on state authority, the Nationalist government issued restrictive regulations on course offerings, the distribution of programs of study, and extra-curricular activities in what was seen as a restoration of educational rights (Liu, 2023). All schools were required to register with the state and turn over administrative control to Chinese nationals (Rigdon, 2009). To register with the government, a university had to meet some regulatory requirements, such as having a Chinese president, having more than half of Chinese members on the Board of Control, having no propagation of religion whatsoever, conforming to the standards issued by the Ministry of Education in curriculum design, and not offering religious courses among required subjects. There were some disadvantages if a university did not register; there would be no exemption from tax on imported apparatus and equipment, for instance, and graduates would not be eligible for government scholarships for study abroad programs. Another disadvantage was that graduates could not hold positions in registered schools (Thurston & Chester, 1956). As a result, the Christian universities registered with the Nationalist government and modified their departments and curriculum. After the registration, there was no direct Christian proselytization in the teaching programs, and it was not a requirement for students to attend religious activities on campus.

In 1943, a Planning Committee for the Christian universities in China was constituted in New York for the purpose of making future development planning for the Christian universities in post-war China. In the following years, several conferences were held by the Committee to discuss the future goal, nature, academic development, and organization of these Christian universities. In the reports issued by the committee, the previous educational goal of Christian education was reiterated; that is, to serve Christian purposes, promote LAE, and make contributions to Chinese society (Liu, 2009). There were different opinions towards details of the report from the Christian universities. The committee accepted the advice from some universities and made the final report, stating that both undergraduate and graduate education were equally important and that all institutions should maintain equally high standards of academic excellence and Christian character (Liu, 2009). However, due to the breakout of the civil war and the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the post-war plan was abandoned.

In 1949, the People’s Republic of China was founded with the Communist Party taking power. In the new political regime, the Chinese leaders joined the socialist world under the communist system, which was expressed in terms of educational ideology—a drastic shift from what had been an American-influenced model to a Soviet one (Hayhoe, 1999). Under the influence of the Soviet advisors, the new Chinese government planned to reorganize and reconstruct the colleges and universities nationwide, with the aim of creating a larger number of specialized institutions to meet the nation’s macroeconomic developmental needs. According to the reorganization plan, all private universities, including the Christian universities, had to be abolished, with their departments and faculties divided and merged into other institutions and universities. Although there was some resistance from the faculties and universities, the reorganization plan was completed in 1952.

The legacy of the Christian universities has been continued in contemporary universities in Mainland China and beyond. In Mainland China, the faculty and programs from the Christian universities were divided and merged into public universities to develop strong disciplines and programs (Hayhoe, 1999). Most of their beautiful campuses are still being used today (Ng et al., 2023). Outside Mainland China, their legacy and traditions were brought to broader social contexts in Asia. For example, in 1951, Chung Chi College was founded in Hong Kong by the former faculty and students from the thirteen Christian universities in Mainland China, with the specific mission to continue the educational ideals of former Christian universities (Ng, 2001). In 1955, the United Board for Christian Higher Education in Asia (UBCHEA)Footnote 2 established Tunghai University to carry on Christian LAE in Taiwan (Mou, 2021). Later, in the 1960s, faculty members and graduates from Lingnan University in Guangzhou restored Lingnan University in Hong Kong (Lingnan University, 2019). All these higher education institutions have developed into universities with strong LAE traditions (Mou, 2021; Ng, 2001). The UBCHEA has been promoting whole person education in other parts of Asia, and other faith-based institutions emerged during this period, such as the International Christian University (ICU) in Japan.

Data and method

This study employed qualitative case study and thematic analysis (Creswell & Creswell, 2017; Yin, 2017). It includes two parts: the historical part on the former Christian universities and the contemporary part on current institutions; the latter have a historical connection with those former Christian universities. The historical part of the study used archival documents preserved in the Yale Divinity Library and published literature as data sources. This part selected four case studies (four universities): Ginling College, Yenching University, Lingnan University in Guangzhou, and West China Union University. The study examined their education goals for whole person development, particularly the cultivation of a spirit of service to serve the country based on the tradition of Christian values.

The second part of the study also draws on document data sources from the university website to examine their mission and goals for whole person development and the cultivation of a spirit of service. In addition, supplementary interview data with administrators and faculty members (three from Lingnan University and three from Tunghai University) are also used for further analysis of the mission to fully understand the goals of LAE and how it is influenced by both history and social factors. Three case studies (universities) were selected for the study: Lingnan University in Hong Kong, Tunghai University in Taiwan, and Yuanpei College at Peking University in Mainland China. The three institutions have historical connections to the former Christian universities in China. In 1967, Lingnan University in Hong Kong was built by alumni of the former Lingnan University in Guangzhou. Tunghai University was established by the UBCHEA in 1955 after the 13 Christian universities were closed in Mainland China. In its early years, Tunghai was also referred to as the 14th Christian university outside Mainland China, as noted by faculty members, and its mission explicitly emphasized the continuance of the tradition from former Christian universities. Yuanpei College at Peking University is connected to the former Yenching University. During the higher education reorganization in the early 1950s, Peking University inherited the campus and some faculty and departments from Yenching University. This section discusses the social change, the founding of new institutions, their connection with the former Christian universities, and LAE in the current age with a spirit of service.

Findings

A spirit of service in the mission and goals of LAE in former Christian universities

These Christian universities were established under the social background of a religious movement. The faith-based institutions had their values expressed in their mission, goals, and curriculum. Their values were closely related to the existing social context, and the focus was on educating students to become well-rounded persons who would then serve the development of their country. The spirit of service in the goals of LAE in Christian universities can find their origin in the values of Christianity: the serving spirit is stated in the verse “whoever wants to become great among you must be your servant” in the Gospel of Matthew in the Bible.Footnote 3 It is emphasized in Christianity that those who want to lead shall serve first, by following the example of Jesus. This value has been integrated into Christian higher education. In these Christian universities, the goals of LAE were to cultivate well-rounded persons to become Christian leaders and to serve the society.

  1. (1)

    Ginling College

The purpose behind the establishment of Ginling College was the cultivation of Christian female leaders. The College offered a well-rounded education, with the goal of strengthening women’s character and inspiring the fuller consecration of life (Thurston & Chester, 1956). The graduates were expected to work and serve as leaders in every aspect of life, such as the social, economic, educational, and religious fields. The purpose of education was clearly stated in its mission statement:

For the furtherance of the cause of Christ in China; for the advance in education necessary to provide trained leadership; for the education of Christian women for Christian service; and for the promotion of higher education under Christian influence this college is founded (Appendix, Ginling College 1, 1919, p. 9).

With the emphasis on character formation in its goal, the College guided its classroom instruction and out-of-class activities in accordance with this focus. The model of LAE for women was claimed in its mission statement. This mission was implemented through its curriculum. Its objective was not to give a narrowly specialized training, but a broad and liberal education. This was formed through a balanced understanding of the many fields of human knowledge and thought. As a college for women, Ginling also paid attention to certain fields and professions in which women could make a special contribution and needed special training, such as home economics. This goal determined its curriculum design.

After government registration, which was required for secular education purposes, its mission was stated as follows:

(Ginling) shall conform to the highest standards of educational efficiency, promote social welfare and high ideals of citizenship, and develop the highest type of character, in accordance with the original purpose of the five Christian Boards which were its founders (Appendix, Ginling College 2, 1933, p. 3).

  1. (2)

    Yenching University

Because of its background and funding, Yenching was a university with a Christian background. Funded by Christian Western Churches, the University aspired to offer the best quality of intellectual and religious leadership for China. It also aimed at cultivating graduates who would contribute to the building of a new China. In this sense, a focus on service and social responsibility informed its mission. Its mission was as follows:

Peking UniversityFootnote 4 aims to inculcate Christian truth and to lead its students to an intelligent wholehearted acceptance of Jesus Christ as Savior and Lord. The aim of Peking University is to train Men and Women of the spirit and quality that can create a new China (Appendix, Yenching University 1, 1920, p.15).

  1. (3)

    Lingnan University in Guangzhou

Lingnan University, based on its funding and relation with missionary societies, focused on promoting Christian higher education in China, and made an endeavor to cultivate graduates with higher quality to serve the society. This is clearly stated in its mission statement:

The purpose of the Trustees of Canton Christian College (Lingnan University) is to establish in Canton, and adjacent territory in China, an institution of the highest standards of educational efficiency, under Christian influences (Appendix, Lingnan University GZ 1, 1919, p. 5).

  1. (4)

    West China Union University

Like other Christian universities, the main goal of West China Union University was for the promotion of Christianity and Christian higher education. It was stated in the archival documents as follows:

The aim of the founders, as stated in the constitution, is the extension of the Kingdom of God by means of education in West China. A) by providing such facilities for the education of Chinese or others, connected with the various Missions in West China, as shall enable them to take their places among the educated classes of the day; B) by affording means for the education of other youth of all classes (Taylor, 1936, p. 16).

The ethos of the university was the combination of scientific and moral education. The university had a code of conduct which was summarized into an eight-character inscription. It was similar to the Confucian virtues of classical Chinese education, that is, benevolence, knowledge, loyalty, courage, honesty, prudence, diligence, and harmony (Taylor, 1936). With this goal, the university cultivated students both professionally and morally.

Overall, the universities all have a clear expression of cultivating graduates to serve the development of the country. The spirit originated from the value of Christian higher education. These mottos and the spirit of service are integrated with classic Chinese ethics and values for the cultivation of ideal citizens or whole persons. However, due to the social development and reform, they became secularized. Becoming secularized did not save these institutions from the fate of demise under the new regime. Today, their influence and legacy are still being carried on. Specifically, the spirit of service in LAE in the faith-based education system moved onto social contexts outside of Mainland China, to such places as Hong Kong and Taiwan.

LAE and its goals in contemporary institutions

Lingnan University in Hong Kong

Lingnan is one of the eight public universities in Hong Kong with a strong foundation in LAE. Lingnan has three faculties: arts, business, and social sciences (Appendix, Lingnan University 1, 2021). Its history can be dated back to the founding of a former Christian College in Guangzhou in mainland China in 1888, which was known as Lingnan University later, one of the 13 former Christian universities. The former Lingnan University was closed in Mainland China in the 1950s during the national higher education reorganization. Then more than a decade later, Lingnan College was re-established in Hong Kong in 1967 by the alumni of the former university. Lingnan developed into a degree-conferring institution and acquired university status in 1999 (Appendix, Lingnan University 1, 2021, para.1).

Lingnan aims at nurturing students as whole persons with a spirit of service to society by combining the Chinese and Western liberal arts traditions. Its motto is education for service. Its core values are “building a collegial community of learning and discovery for students and scholar-teachers”, “whole person cultivation and all-around development,” and “community engagement and social responsibility.” Lingnan carries on the “Lingnan spirit” passed on by the former Lingnan University in Guangzhou, which emphasizes “passion, loyalty, perseverance, openness to different ideas and cultures, and a readiness to serve” (Appendix, Lingnan University 2, para. 1, n.d.). Lingnan’s focus on service learning was emphasized by faculty members during the interviews. For example, Clara (faculty member) said, “I think we are the only university [in Hong Kong] with service learning, and every student has to do service learning at one point or another.”

When referring to the history and tradition, one faculty member, Guanghai said that “the tradition goes back a long time because Lingnan was created more than 100 years ago in Guangdong. And it was modeled after American LAE…We try to inherit the tradition.” Also, the Christian university influence can be observed on campus at Lingnan now. For example, an administrator, Thomas, said, “you can see some of the Christian heritage in Lingnan if you get to see the anthem of Lingnan. There is still quite an active church group that attracts a lot of our students outside of the classroom.” Adapting tradition to its current social context, LAE in Lingnan also integrated Chinese values into the cultivation of whole persons. For example, another administrator emphasized that LAE is important for developing students as ‘persons’ and nurturing students to be caring leaders. He elaborated: “We are trying very hard to find our own pathway to combine the best traditions of the East and West in terms of nurturing leaders … It is about how to become a ‘person,’ about character formation, and about nurturing a person to become a leader that should be a caring one and care not only about local issues but also global issues.”

Tunghai University in Taiwan

Tunghai University was founded with the support of the UBCHEA in 1955 to inherit the tradition of the 13 former Christian Universities in Mainland China after their closure in the early 1950s. This has been emphasized by faculty member Chiang Yung during an interview. He explained:

Tunghai University was established in 1955, [because] the UBCHEA wanted to find a place in Asia to establish a Christian university. Christian universities were all closed and taken back by the government during the Cold War period, in 1952 in China... At that time, not only Christian universities, but even hospitals, various institutions, and churches, all left China in 1952. So at that time, they [UBCHEA] wanted to find a place in Asia, and Tunghai was expected to inherit the 13 [Christian] universities in China.

Tunghai’s motto is truth, faith, and deeds, rooted in the Christian tradition. Based on its founding spirit of Christianity, Tunghai emphasizes holistic education and students' overall development in professional expertise, soft skills, and a spirit of service. This is summarized in the following text:

It is hoped that ideal graduates of Tunghai University will not only possess the knowledge in their fields of expertise, critical thinking skills, problem-solving skills, and interpersonal communication skills, but that they are also confident, responsible graduates. It is hoped that these graduates will have high moral and ethical standards, and an appreciation for the arts and humanities, and are socially aware of the needs of the society (Appendix, Tunghai University 2, 2021, para. 6).

The mission and goals are based on the establishment memorandum, which designed Tunghai as a small-scale Christian liberal arts college to cultivate graduates to serve Taiwan society (Appendix, Tunghai University 4, 1953). The current LAE in Tunghai is intended to revive and carry forward the tradition established at its inception. Tunghai still carries on special features from its foundation, such as the Student Labor Program. The labor program, the first in Taiwan, was designed “to foster volunteerism and develop students’ sense of social responsibility by carrying out environmental services via regular tasks on campus in their daily lives” (Appendix A, Tunghai University 4, 2021, para. 3). Chiang Yung specifically mentioned the labor program as an integral part of LAE model for cultivating in students a spirit of service. He stated, “all students need to wash the dishes, clean the toilets, sweep the floors, etc.”

The LAE tradition and spirit have been carried on by integrating Chinese cultural and social values to promote whole person education and social responsibility. Specifically, faculty member Cho Yun elaborated on her perspective on LAE, noting that it should include ethics or moral education from traditions in the West and the East. She emphasized that morals or ethics should be the base, and the most important thing in education is to cultivate students to be whole persons. Similarly, another administrator also mentioned the cultivation of responsibilities of the whole person: “I would like to see these students succeed in the future after graduation. They will have some high values and social responsibilities. This is what I am aiming to train students to be, that is, an upright person.”

Yuanpei College in Peking University in Mainland China

Yuanpei College is an undergraduate teaching and learning unit within Peking University in Beijing, Mainland China. Peking University is one of the top research universities in Mainland China. Established as a public university in 1898, Peking University was moved to the campus of Yenching University, the former Christian University, during the 1952 higher education reorganization, where it was given the opportunity to merge with other departments from Yenching University (Appendix, Yuanpei College 3, 2021). Yenching University was one of the most influential Christian universities; it had high academic standards and a strong LAE tradition expressed in its motto “Freedom through Truth for Service” (Hao, 2017). Under the leadership of its president, John Leighton Stuart, its LAE had developed a cross-disciplinary, inter-religious, and cross-cultural style, which incorporated Chinese culture and tradition into its features (Ng & Ng, 2014). Through the affiliation with Harvard via the establishment of the Harvard Yenching Institute in 1928, Yenching raised its profile as an international institution with Chinese characteristics (Hao, 2017).

The former Yenching University and current Peking University provide the background and space for the establishment of a new LAE college. Yuanpei College initially started in 2001 as a general education program, called the Yuanpei program, for Peking University. The College was officially founded in 2007 as an independent college outside of other departments and programs. Yuanpei is named after Cai Yuanpei, a highly influential former president of Peking University, who in the early twentieth century advocated for a broad-based higher education in the arts and sciences, with philosophy at its core. It was strongly influenced by the German university model he had observed while in Europe, as well as his own heritage in classical Chinese culture. Yuanpei emphasized LAE with Chinese characteristics and focused on training the whole person for all walks of life in society. This is clearly stated in the following excerpt:

By establishing an LAE plan with Chinese characteristics and a Peking University -style undergraduate talent training model, with advanced training concepts and high-quality teaching and research capabilities, the College aims to cultivate high-quality leading talents with patriotism, international vision, innovative spirit, and practical ability in all walks of life in the new era (Appendix, Yuanpei College 1, 2021, para. 2).

Its innovative LAE model was created “to enable our youth to grow into better people and better citizens, to contribute vitality to the great cause of building a modern republic in this ancient civilization” (Appendix, Yuanpei College 2, 2021, para. 2).

Yuanpei’s LAE aims at cultivating graduates for the nation’s development through internship programs or projects that support rural areas. For example, as part of the goals in cultivating a whole person for overall development, the following are integral components of LAE: cultivating a sense of social responsibility in students and reinforcing the importance of community and country service. Like Lingnan and Tunghai in this regard, Yuanpei also has its own social activity program for cultivating a spirit of service. Yuanpei plans to:

establish 12 student social practice bases within three years across the country, covering the eastern coastal and central and western regions, which cultivate students' sense of home and country and social responsibility by cooperating with local governments and enterprises, focusing on basic education, urban and rural development, financial technology, and other topics (Appendix, Yuanpei College 1, 2021, para. 15).

Although Peking University is related to the former Christian university, Yenching University, whose campus it inherited along with some programs, the historical legacy of LAE in Yenching is not evident in the LAE in Yuanpei College and the general education at Peking University from the documents under review. As mentioned, Yuanpei College was named after a former President of Peking University and aims to promote whole person education following his educational philosophy (Appendix, Yuanpei College 1, 2021).

Discussion

Focusing on the cultivation of whole persons with a sense of social responsibility and a spirit of service

The three contemporary institutions are integrating their LAE models into their social contexts, and cultivating whole persons for their societies, with a sense of social responsibility and a spirit of service. Due to the social ideology of Mainland China, Christian influence was not obvious on campus. Therefore, the goal of LAE mainly emphasizes cultivating talents for serving the socialist society. In contrast, the Christian influence can be observed from the physical campus, with a chapel on campus at both Tunghai and Lingnan. The Chapel of Tunghai, the Luce Chapel, is a famous tourist spot in Taiwan. Designed by the renowned architect I.M. Pei, the chapel was built to commemorate Missionary Henry W. Luce for his contributions and commitment to former Christian universities in China. Moreover, Tunghai has a campus chaplain who offers guidance and consultation for students on campus.

As mentioned, the spirit of service in LAE can trace its origin to the Christian tradition. The Christian tradition has a serving spirit, as Jesus is the example of a servant and the followers are encouraged to serve others and to contribute to society. These biblical ideas are ingrained in the Christian approach to higher education in China. In the former Christian universities, this was clearly stated in their mission statement, such as cultivating graduates to serve the nation with Christian higher education. Lingnan and Tunghai specifically mentioned that they are endeavoring to cultivate graduates with a serving spirit. For example, Lingnan aims at nurturing students as whole persons with a spirit of service to society, and Tunghai stated that its graduates will be responsible graduates with high moral and ethical standards and be socially aware of the needs of society.

In Mainland China, Yuanpei College at Peking University is located in the campus of the former Yenching University and the holistic education and rich intellectual tradition of Peking University. However, the LAE traditions from former Christian Yenching University were not mentioned explicitly which might be due to the limitation of the study (missing interviews from Yuanpei). Yuanpei College designed and implemented its LAE model for the cultivation of whole persons. The College’s goal was to create active citizens who would contribute to the development of the nation and society in mainland China. It was heavily influenced by the predominant socialist view and the focus on talent cultivation.

Although the three institutions all have a historical connection, the influences from the Christian tradition and former Christian universities are different. In Yuanpei at Peking University, there is not much reference to the former Christian university or the Christian tradition in official documents, as education in Mainland China has been highly influenced by socialist ideology. This disconnection can be related to the difference in education ideology between socialist and capitalist societies (McKinlay & Little, 1986). Usually, education in socialist societies does not support the education fostered within a capitalist tradition, influenced by Christianity. Socialists are critical of capitalist societies and regard its educational systems as the inculcation of capitalist values, which they believe reproduce class inequalities (McKinlay & Little, 1986). Socialist education is supposed to cultivate workers for socialist development and for the betterment of society as a whole. However, it is clear that the previous LAE traditions at Yenching still have influence on the new LAE at Yuanpei in an indirect way. The ethos on campus and the legacy of its strong disciplines and research excellency are evidence of this. In contrast, in Lingnan and Tunghai, the preservation of the Christian tradition is clearly observable on campus and in its educational understanding and ideology.

The three current institutions, influenced to some extent by the LAE traditions of the former Christian universities, have developed their own models of LAE for whole person development. The faith-based activities on campus are prevalent, and the university’s mission and goals, with an emphasis on the spirit of service, illustrate the relevance of LAE for today’s global citizenship. However, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Mainland China continue to face challenges in terms of their LAE implementation in the age of secularization of higher education. There is also a great deal of pressure in terms of university rankings and reputation competitions with a focus on research capacity, so the implementation of goals and values of LAE is not a primary focus for these institutions.

Faith-based education for whole person development in the current world: diversity, inclusion, and decolonization

With the development of higher education around the world, universities are becoming more secular to meet the current social needs. Some faith-based institutions are also related to the colonial process and experience. Hence, educational reforms are being conducted to remove any remaining colonial influence. However, these institutions have evolved and adapted into new social contexts. They have played an important role in contributing to society in terms of the spirit of service and the sense of social responsibility for whole person development. To some extent, the legacy from former Christian universities has been carried on to contemporary societies, and some institutions in Mainland China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan have developed new models of LAE based on these traditions, in conjunction with cultural traditions.

These institutions focus on the development of whole persons as their core value, and is a good example of combating the current neoliberal trend in higher education that focuses on university rankings and research competitions (Mok, 2023). This focus on whole persons also corresponds to the common values in different social traditions, hence integrating indigenous values and cultural traditions into the current education system. The qualities of LAE graduates, such as the sense of social responsibility and the spirit of service, are commonly valued in different cultural backgrounds. As such, this could potentially help to mitigate the geopolitical tensions that exist internationally and achieve closer relations between societies and countries based on a shared sense of empathy and human values. The efforts of promoting common values within higher education can potentially contribute to the decolonization, equity and diversity, and inclusion in education in this age where some values and traditions are neglected or marginalized (Naidoo, 2018). To tackle the current global challenges, countries and nations need to work collaboratively, which will require individuals to have a social responsibility, and possess leadership skills and a spirit of service as global citizens (Harari, 2018, 2020). Thus, it is important to highlight the influence of the serving spirit from Christian higher education institutions on current models of LAE. It is the hope of this author that in the future, these institutions and models will be emphasized and promoted for the good of all citizens.

Conclusion

Even in this secularized world of the post-modern era, faith-based education and institutions still contribute to the world by cultivating people as well-rounded persons with spirituality, a sense of social responsibility, and a spirit of service and leadership—in other words, global citizens. This paper calls attention to the findings of empirical studies in LAE in former Christian universities in China and the contemporary institutions that have a strong historical connection with them. Specifically, this study explored how the heritage and spirit of service from Christian traditions have been integrated and carried on to present-day LAE to some extent. It also explored how it has become an integral part of the whole person cultivation, in conjunction with social ideology and cultural traditions. The Christian universities were built by North American missionaries and adapted American LAE into the Chinese contexts. The design of LAE in these institutions involved Christian values from within Chinese societies. The LAE in the former Christian universities aimed at educating whole persons who could serve the development of China and contribute to the society as a servant leader. Although these Christian universities were closed and merged with other public universities in the higher education reform in the 1950s in Mainland China, their influence is still evident in the current succeeding institutions. Some institutions inherited their programs and campuses, as did newly founded universities in Hong Kong and Taiwan. The findings from contemporary institutions indicate that the spirit of service or the sense of social responsibility has become an integrated part of LAE in their models, mission, and goals. Their LAE also developed within their own social contexts, such as the international city of Hong Kong with its vision for the global, the Taiwan society serving the community, and socialist China with its focus on the responsibilities of national development. These values and models could bring insights for higher education development. These values are much needed in present-day society, where globally, we are facing a rise in xenophobia, nationalism, and populism.

The former Christian institutions were developed in the historical age when the Christian movement and higher education development were taking place simultaneously (Lautz, 2009; Wang, 2000). With secularization, gradually, the religious part in curriculums and educational models were removed from compulsory requirements. Higher education institutions were then created to serve the new focus on social development, with an emphasis on professional training and research development (Fallis, 2013). However, some institutions carried on the legacy from former Christian universities to their current LAE models, with some values pertinent to today’s social needs, like the serving spirit and the social responsibility. These values are much needed in terms of supporting indigenous knowledge and traditions and promoting diversity and inclusion in higher education. The research on their educational models and development holds significance for educational reform in the current society where collaboration, social responsibility, leadership, and service are gravely needed. Considering the current challenges derived from the impacts of neoliberalism on university’s mission for the global common good (Marginson, 2023), we need to bring values and traditions from different societies to higher education models for the cultivation of a global citizenship.

A limitation of this study lies in the case study research method. The LAE research only focuses on the selected institutions in Greater China and is not intended for generalization. Other limitations include the small number of interviewees and the lack of participation from Yuanpei College. This creates a challenge for a paralleled analysis of the three contemporary institutions. Future research could further explore the LAE in current institutions and how it has been influenced by the legacy from former Christian universities in China. This could be done by performing surveys and interviews with a large sample of faculty members, students, and alumni to acquire a comprehensive understanding of the LAE features and its emphasis on global citizen cultivation.