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Pigments—Iron-based red, yellow, and brown ochres

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Abstract

Natural Fe-bearing ochres ranging in color from yellow to deep red and brown abound on earth’s crust. Quite often, ochres can be used for pigmenting purposes upon little or no processing, and, hence, the pertinent materials have been widely employed for decorative and artistic purposes since the dawn of prehistory; ochres have also found medicinal applications. This paper offers an overview regarding the range and composition of the available natural ochre pigments, their origin, properties, and potential processing. In addition, the production and processing of artificial ochres is presented. The prevailing analytical techniques currently employed in ochres’ identification and provenancing are also discussed, and guidelines for good practice are provided. Finally, authors offer some insight on ochres’ potential applications and their limitations, while a discussion pertaining to ochres in the Greco-Roman world is also included.

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Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable as no new data were created or analyzed in this study.

Code availability

Not applicable.

Notes

  1. Empedocles’ work is referenced according to its standard edition by Diels–Kranz 1951, 308–374 (DK 31).

  2. In order to highlight various aspects related to ochres, authors have occasionally incorporated results deriving from their own research. This is the case of the SEM–EDX analyses/images presented in Figs. 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, and 11, the μ-Raman spectra shown in Fig. 10, and the XRF data shown in Fig. 7. The relevant methodological details are provided in Appendix 2.

  3. In fact the low energy photons are absorbed by atmospheric air. A way out of this problem is the target excitation in vacuum or in helium flow.

  4. Experimental details are provided in Appendix 2.

  5. Spectra collected by the authors. For experimental details, see Appendix 2.

  6. Analyses conducted by the authors. The experimental details are provided in Appendix 2.

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Acknowledgements

The authors express their sincere acknowledgments towards Dr. Y. Bassiakos, Emeritus Researcher, INN, NCSR “Demokritos,” for his invaluable contribution in the formation of the “Natural ochres: geology and mineralogy” section. Also, the Greek Ministry of Culture and Sports is acknowledged for sampling permissions. Professor D.F. Anagnostopoulos and PhD candidate A. Asvestas (Materials Science & Engineering Department, Ioannina University, Greece) are thanked for granting permission to publish the elemental distribution map shown in Fig. 7a. Finally, Dr. N. Boukos and Dr. G. Mitrikas from INN, NCSR “Demokritos,” are warmly thanked for providing access to SEM-EDS and μ-Raman devices, respectively.

This research is co-financed by Greece and the European Union (European Social Fund-ESF) through the Operational Programme “Human Resources Development, Education and Lifelong Learning” in the context of the project “Reinforcement of Postdoctoral Researchers—2nd Cycle” (MIS-5033021), implemented by the State Scholarships Foundation (ΙΚΥ).

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Funding

G.P. Mastrotheodoros received a post-doctoral scholarship from the State Scholarships Foundation (IKY) (grant number: 2019–050-0503–18729).

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  1. School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, 15780, Zografou, Attiki, Greece

    Georgios P. Mastrotheodoros & Konstantinos G. Beltsios

  2. Institute of Nanoscience & Nanotechnology, NCSR ‘Demokritos’, Aghia Paraskevi, 15310, Attiki, Greece

    Georgios P. Mastrotheodoros

  3. Department of Conservation of Antiquities and Works of Art, School of Applied Arts and Culture, University of West Attika, 12243, Aegaleo, Attiki, Greece

    Georgios P. Mastrotheodoros

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Mastrotheodoros, G.P., Beltsios, K.G. Pigments—Iron-based red, yellow, and brown ochres. Archaeol Anthropol Sci 14, 35 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-021-01482-2

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