Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Mortars and plasters—How mortars were made. The literary sources

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This article examines the ancient literary evidence for information regarding the ingredients and processes employed to make mortar, plaster, and sealants. The information from the authors is examined chronologically and within the genre and literary context in which it occurs to evaluate better the intention of the author. The challenges presented by the transmission of the manuscripts to the modern day and by the ambiguous and technical language sometimes employed are presented. Terms and expressions are compared between authors to determine how and to what degree such ambiguities can be resolved. The goal is to present a methodology for approaching ancient texts rather than to provide a definitive interpretation of their meaning, a task which is sometimes not possible given the nature of the evidence. Finally, a series of best practices is suggested for those approaching the texts without the benefits of philological training.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

All sources are published.

Notes

  1. For the use of pitch in Greek construction, see references in Martin 1965: 20, 66, 422–3.

  2. Vitruvius (De arch. 2.1), in his explanation of the origins of architecture, equates earthen-based mortars with more primitive stages of development and barbarian building methods, but the Latin agricultural writers make clear that they were commonly used in farm buildings.

  3. For example, Pliny (HN 36.135) refers to silex from Luna, which should indicate Luna marble.

  4. Vitruvius (De arch. 2.6.2–3) uses “spongia” to refer to a type of volcanic scoria.

  5. Procopius (Aed. 1.1.53) (sixth century CE), when describing mortar, equates άσβεστος (ásbestos) with τίτανος (títanos), when he actually seems to be referring to mortar rather than lime. Elsewhere (Aed. 2.1.10, 3.3.12) he refers simply to τίτανος (títanos) again in a context that seems to refer to mortar. His use of both terms to signify mortar rather than lime could reflect a change in usage over time.

  6. Theophrastus, On Stones 9, 68; For discussion of Greek terms for lime, see Orlandos 1966–68, vol 1: 136–8.

  7. Pliny (HN 33.94) also mentions a type of stone with similar properties from Thrace (Thracius lapis). This comment is probably taken from Theophrastus (On Stones 13). See commentary in Caley and Richards 1956: 80–3.

  8. Macerata: Vitr., De arch. 7.2.1, 7.2.2; Plin., HN 36.177; Faventinus 20; Palladius 1.14. Restincta: Lex parieti faciendo Puteolana 2.16–21. Extincta: Vitr., De arch. 2.5.1; Faventinus 20; Augustine, City of God 21. Temperata: Palladius 1.9.4.

  9. Intrita is only used by Pliny (HN 36.176). The meaning can be inferred from the context and from his other uses of the adjective.

  10. For κονιάμα (koniáma) as plaster: Demosthenes, Orations 13. On Organization 30; Aristotle, Problems 11.7; Diodorus Siculus 5.12.2, 20.8.3; Philo of Alexandria, De agricultura 37.160, De Cherubim 29.104.

  11. Quicklime can be slaked so that it becomes a putty or a powder. To create a putty, more water than lime is used, whereas if less water is used, the quicklime is hydrated to a powder with the excess water being removed as steam, as is common nowadays. Hydrated lime powder can then be combined with water later to create a lime putty for mortar. The implication of the ancient writers is that slaked lime was used in putty form.

  12. Wiss et al. 1930; Eckel 1907: 14–15, 31–2. Strength: Merriman 1920: 433.

  13. For discussion, see Caley and Richards 1956: 214–15, 220–1.

  14. Bartoldus 2012: pp. 15–35 argues that Palladius was from Gaul based on a prosopographical analysis, but there is no internal evidence from the manuscript to prove it.

  15. Orlandos (1966–68: 139–40) cites volcanic ash in some examples of Classical and Hellenistic mortars at Thera, Delos, and the port at Zea, so there may have been localized knowledge of the benefits of volcanic ash in lime mortars before the practice developed more fully in Italy.

  16. Cos: Livadiotti 2006: 183; Germany: Lamprecht 1984: 46–9; Massazza and Costa 1977.

  17. Seneca (Q Nat. 3.2.3) also notes that similar phenomena occur in some places in Italy, and he cites the waters of Albula, which is at Tivoli and is what created the travertine deposits there. So, this phenomenon is apparently the result of precipitation of calcium carbonate from the water.

  18. Chiotis et al. 2001: 330 found crushed terracotta in the paving plaster of the Mycenaean palace at Tiryns.

  19. The use of “cretae”, a word implying chalk, suggests that the testae were chalk-like or finely crushed.

  20. Cocciopesto: Giuliani 1992: 92; Tiles: Ash 1941: 71.

  21. Vitruvius (De arch. 7.4.5) refers to a “testaceum pavimentum,” which has been translated as “a pavement …of pounded brick” (Granger 1935: 101), as “a terracotta pavement” (Rowland and Howe 1999: 91), and as “un pavimento di mattoni” (Corso and Romano 1997: 1043). In Pliny (HN 36.188), it is translated as “a layer of pounded potsherds” (Eichholz 1962: 149). In Faventinus (26) as “a pavement of earthenware” (Plommer 1973: 75) and “a pavement du tuileau” (Cam 2001: 33). In Palladius (1.9), as “a testaceous coat” (Owen 1807: 20) and as “un carrelage de briques” (Martin and Guiraud 1976: 17).

  22. I owe thanks to Eric Kondratieff and Bill Owens for their advice in helping me to interpret and translate this passage.

  23. The practice of compacting earth floors is mentioned much earlier by Cato (Agr. 129) where he recommends using a rammer (pavicula) or a roller (cylindro) for a grain threshing floor.

  24. The early manuscripts have two variations of the phrase, but all read “testis.” H (Harley 2767, ninth century) reads: signis operibus ex testis aut. Three others, E (Wolfenbüttel, Bibl. 132, tenth century), S (Selestad. Bibl 1153, tenth century), and G (Wolfenbüttel, Bibl. 69, eleventh century) read: signinis operibus ex testis a (Rose 1899: 208). For a listing of the various manuscripts of Vitruvius and their designations, see Granger 1933: xxxii–xiii.

  25. For the effects of polishing mortar, see Goodman 1989. For the hydraulic effects of organic ashes, see Lancaster 2019.

  26. For the use of marble dust in Greek wall plasters, see Martin 1965: 422–5; Orlandos 1966–68: 139.

References

  • Aceto M (2021) The palette of organic colourants in wall paintings. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-021-01392-3

  • Adam J-P (1994) Roman building: materials and techniques. Batsford, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Arizzi A, Cultrone G (2021) Mortars and plasters – how to characterise hydraulic mortars. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-021-01404-2

  • Ash HB (1934) Marcus Porcius Cato, on agriculture; Marcus Terentius Varro, on agriculture. Loeb Classical Library. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass

  • Ash HB (1941) Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella, on agriculture. Loeb Classical Library. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass

  • Bailey KC (1932) The Elder Pliny’s chapters on chemical subjects, vol 2. Edward Arnold, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartoldus J (2012) Palladius Rutilius Taurus Aemilianus: Welt und Wert spätrömischer Landwirtschaft. Wissner, Augsburg

  • Becker H (2021) Pigment nomenclature in the ancient Near East, Greece, and Rome. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-021-01394-1

  • Bernárdez Gómez MJ, Guisado di Monti JC (2007) Las referencias al lapis specularis en la Historia Natural de Plinio El Viejo. Pallas:49–57

  • Blake ME (1947) Ancient Roman construction in Italy from the Pre-historic period to Augustus. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington

    Google Scholar 

  • Boynton RS (1980) Chemistry and technology of lime and limestones. 2nd rev. edn. Wiley, New York

  • Braconi P (2009) Ostracus, asterico e lastrico. I pavimenti in cocciopesto degli antichi e l’opus signinum dei moderni. In: Angelelli C (ed) Atti del XIV Colloquio dell’Associazione italiana per lo studio e la conservazione del mosaico (Spoleto, 7–8 febbraio 2008). Tipografia Mancini, Tivoli, pp 371–83

  • Brandon CJ, Hohlfelder RL, Jackson MD, Oleson JP (2014) Building for eternity: the history and technology of Roman concrete engineering in the sea. Oxbow, Oxford

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Buffone L, Lorenzoni S, Pallara M, Zanettin E (1999) Le macine rotatorie in rocce vulcaniche di Pompei. Rivista Di Studi Pompeiani 10:117–130

    Google Scholar 

  • Burgio L (2021) Pigments, dyes and inks – their analysis on manuscripts, scrolls and papyri. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-021-01403-3

  • Caley ER, Richards JFC (1956) Theophrastus, on stones. Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

    Google Scholar 

  • Callebat L, Gros P (1999) Vitruve de l’architecture Livre II. Les Belles Lettres, Paris

    Google Scholar 

  • Cam M-T (2001) Cetius Faventinus. Abrégé d’architecture privée. Collection des universités de France. Série latine 363. Les Belles Lettres, Paris

  • Caroselli M, Ruffolo SA, Piqué F (2021) Mortars and plasters – how to manage mortars and plasters conservation. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-021-01409-x

  • Cavallo G, Riccardi MP (2021) Glass-based pigments in painting. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (forthcoming)

  • Chiotis E, Dimou E, Papadimitriou GD, Tzoutzopoulos S (2001) The study of some ancient and prehistoric plasters and watertight coatings from Greece. In: Aloupi E, Bassiakos Y, Facorellis Y (eds) Archaeometry issues in Greek prehistory and antiquity. Hellenic Society for Archaeometry and the Society of Messenean Archaeological Studies, Athens, pp 327–342

  • Ciapponi LA (1984) Fra Giocondo da Verona and his edition of Vitruvius. JWarb 47:72–90

  • Corso A, Romano E (1997) De architectura/Vitruvio. G. Einaudi, Turin

    Google Scholar 

  • Courrént M (2016) Vitruve et les naturales quaestiones: La théorie de la matière dans le De Architectura. Arethusa 49:251–262

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeLaine J (2021) Production, transport and on-site organisation of Roman mortars and plasters. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-021-01401-5

  • Domingo Sanz I, Chieli A (2021) Characterising the pigments and paints of prehistoric artists. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-021-01397-y

  • Eckel EC (1907) Cements, limes, and plasters. Their materials, manufacture, and properties. 1st edn. Wiley, New York

  • Eichholz DE (1962) Pliny, natural history. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass

    Google Scholar 

  • Ergenç D, Fort R, Varas−Muriel MJ, Alvarez de Buergo M (2021) Mortars and plasters – how to characterise aerial mortars and plasters. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-021-01398-x

  • Gargiani R (2013) Concrete from archeology to invention 1700–1769: the Renaissance of pozzolana and Roman construction techniques. École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland

  • Giocondo G (1511) M. Vitruvius per Iucundum solito castigatior factus, cum figuris et tabula, ut iam legi et intelligi possit. G Taccuino, Venice

  • Giuliani CF (1992) Opus signinum e cocciopesto. In: DeRossi GM (ed) Segni I. Serie storia antica e archeologia 1, vol 1. Università degli Studi di Salerno, Napoli, pp 89–94

  • Giuliani CF (2006) L’edilizia nell’antichità. 2nd ed. rev. edn. Carocci, Rome

  • Gliozzo E (2021) Pigments – Mercury-based red (cinnabar-vermilion) and white (calomel) and their degradation products. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-021-01402-4

  • Gliozzo E, Burgio L (2021) Pigments – Arsenic-based yellows and reds. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-021-01431-z

  • Gliozzo E, Ionescu C (2021) Pigments – Lead-based whites, reds, yellows and oranges and their alteration phases. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-021-01407-z

  • Gliozzo E, Pizzo A, La Russa MF (2021) Mortars, plasters and pigments – Research questions and sampling criteria. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-021-01393-2

  • Goodman MM (1989) The effects of woodash additive on the structural properties of lime plaster. M.Sc., University of Pennsylvania

  • Grandi Carletti M (2001) Opus signinum and cocciopesto. Alcune osservazioni terminologiche. In: Atti del colloquio dell’associazione italiana per lo studio e la conservazione del mosaico, Pompeii 22–25 marzo 2000. Edizioni del girasole, Ravenna, pp 183–97

  • Granger F (1933) Vitruvius, On architecture. vol 1. Loeb Classical Library. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass

  • Granger F (1935) Vitruvius, On architecture. vol 2. Loeb Classical Library. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass

  • Gros P (2003) L’opus signinum selon Vitruve et dans la terminologie archéologique contemporaine. In: Ciotta G (ed) Vitruvio nella cultura architettonica antica, medievale e moderna. Atti del convegno internazionale di Genova, 5–8 novembre 2001. De Ferrari, Genova, pp 142–52

  • Gros P (2015) Fra Giocondo lecteur et interprète de Vitruve. La valeur de sa méthode et les limites de sa logique. Monuments Et Mémoires Fondation Eugène Piot 94:201–241

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guarnieri C, Lugli S, Gullì D, Pisapia MS, Ingravallo V (2015) Il lapis specularis a Pompei ed Ercolano. Riv Stud Pompeiani 26–27:142–5

    Google Scholar 

  • Healy JF (1999) Pliny the Elder on science and technology. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Hellman M-C (1999) Choix d’inscriptions architecturales grecques. Maison de l’Orient Méditerranéen, Lyon

  • Jackson MD, Marra F, Deocampo D, Vella A, Kosso C, Hay R (2007) Geological observations of excavated sand (harenae fossiciae) used as fine aggregate in Roman pozzolanic mortars. JRA 20:25–53

    Google Scholar 

  • Knapp CW, Christidis GE, Venieri D, Gounaki I, Gibney-Vamvakari J, Stillings M, Photos-Jones E (2021) The ecology and bioactivity of some Greco-Roman medicinal minerals: the case of Melos earth pigments. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-021-01396-z

  • La Russa MF, Ruffolo SA (2021) Mortars and plasters - how to characterise mortars and plasters degradation. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-021-01405-1

  • Lamprecht H-O (1984) Opus caementicium: Bautechnik der Römer. Beton-Verlag, Düsseldorf

    Google Scholar 

  • Lancaster LC (2015) Innovative vaulted construction in the architecture of the Roman Empire: 1st to 4th centuries CE. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Lancaster LC (2019) Pozzolans in mortar in the Roman empire: an overview and thoughts on future work. In: Ortega IF, Bouffier S (eds) Mortiers et hydraulique en Méditerranée antique. Publications Universite Provence, pp 31–9

  • Lancaster LC, Sottili G, Marra F, Ventura G (2010) Provenancing of lightweight volcanic stones used in ancient Roman concrete vaulting: evidence from Turkey and Tunisia. Archaeometry 52:949–969

    Google Scholar 

  • Livadiotti M (2006) Note preliminari sulle techniche costruttive di Coo in età ellenistica e romana. In: Adembri B (ed) Aeimnestos: miscellanea di studi per Mairo Cristofani. Centro Di, Florence, pp 178–87

  • Lugli G (1957) La tecnica edilizia romana con particolare riguardo a Roma e Lazio. G. Bardi, Rome

    Google Scholar 

  • Marra F, Anzidei M, Benini A, D’Ambrosio E, Gaeta M, Ventura G, Cavallo A (2016) Petro-chemical features and source areas of volcanic aggregates used in ancient Roman maritime concretes. J Volcanol Geoth Res 328:59–69

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, R (1965) Manuel d’architecture grecque. vol. 1, Matériaux et techniques. J Picard, Paris

  • Martin R, Guiraud C (1976) Traité d’agriculture. Palladius. Les Belles lettres, Paris

  • Massazza F, Costa U (1977) Factors determining the development of mechanical strength in lime–pozzolana pastes. In: Schneider L (ed) Proceedings of the XII conference on silicate industry and silicate science, vol. 1. SILICONF, Budapest, pp 537–52

  • Mastrotheodoros GP, Beltsios KG, Bassiakos Y (2021) Pigments – iron-based red, yellow and brown ochres. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (forthcoming)

  • Merriman M (1920) American civil engineers’ handbook. 4th ed. rev. edn. Wiley, New York

  • Murat Z (2021) Wall paintings through the ages. The medieval period (Italy, 12th-15th century). Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-021-01410-4

  • Ohl RT (1928) The Enigmas of Symphosius. Philadelphia

  • Oleson JP (2014) Ancient literary sources concerned with Roman concrete technology. In: Brandon CJ, Hohlfelder RL, Jackson MD, Oleson JP (eds) Building for eternity: The history and technology of Roman concrete engineering in the sea. Oxbow, Oxford, pp 11–36

  • Orlandos AK (1966–68) Les matériaux de construction et la technique architecturale des anciens grecs. vols. 1–2. E. de Boccard, Paris

  • Owen T (1807) The fourteen books of Palladius Rutilius Taurus Aemilianus, on Agriculture. J White, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Peacock DPS (1980) The Roman millstone trade: a petrological sketch. WorldArch 12:43–53

    Google Scholar 

  • Pérez-Arantegui J (2021) Not only wall paintings – pigments for cosmetics. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-021-01399-w

  • Plommer H (1973) Vitruvius and later Roman building manuals. Cambridge Classical Studies. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

  • Rose V (1899) Vitruvii de architectura libri decem. Teubner, Leipzig

    Google Scholar 

  • Rowland ID (2011) The Fra Giocondo Vitruvius at 500 (1511–2011). JSAH 70:285–289

    Google Scholar 

  • Rowland ID, Howe T (1999) Vitruvius: ten books on architecture. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Russell B, Fentress E (2016) Mud brick and pisé de terre between Punic and Roman. In: DeLaine J, Camporeale S, Pizzo A (eds) Archaeology of construction V. Man-made materials, engineering, and infrastructure, Proceedings of the conference, Oxford April 11–12, 2015. Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Mérida, pp 131–43

  • Rykwert J, Leach N, Tavernor R (1988) Alberti. On the art of building in ten books. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass

  • Salvadori M, Sbrolli C (2021) Wall paintings through the ages. The Roman period: Republic and early Empire. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-021-01411-3

  • Švarcová S, Hradil D, Hradilová J, Čermáková Z (2021) Pigments – copper-based greens and blues. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-021-01406-0

  • Ungaro L, Giusberti P, Rava A, Prisco L (1993) Emiciclo dei Mercati Traianei. Intervento di restauro delle cortine laterizie. BCom 95.2:181–99

    Google Scholar 

  • Vitti P (2021) Mortars and masonry - Structural lime and gypsum mortars in antiquity and middle ages. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-021-01408-y

  • Wiss JE, Camp TP, Ladoo RB (1930) Gypsum plaster in the ceramic industries. J Am Ceram Soc 13:287–314

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lancaster LC (2012) Ash mortar and vaulting tubes: Agricultural production and the building industry in North Africa In: Camporeale S, Dessales H, Pizzo A (eds) Arqueología de la construcción: los procesos constructivos en el mundo romano: La economía de las obras (Paris, Ecole Normale Supérieure, 10-11 décembre 2009). Madrid, pp 145–60

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Classics Department, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA

    Lynne C. Lancaster

Authors
  1. Lynne C. Lancaster
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Lynne C. Lancaster.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This article is part of the Topical Collection on Mortars, plasters and pigments: Research questions and answers

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Lancaster, L.C. Mortars and plasters—How mortars were made. The literary sources. Archaeol Anthropol Sci 13, 192 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-021-01395-0

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-021-01395-0

Keywords

Search

Navigation