Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Apparatus and methodology for smart trainer homologation analysis

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Sports Engineering Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Virtual cycling engagement has seen a significant increase in the last decade, with a recognizable surge in 2020 due to the pandemic. To ensure a fair competition field, a testing apparatus was designed to test direct-drive bicycle smart trainers from various manufacturers. Smart trainers were tested for error on two main metrics: power measurement error and resistance error. Given that the integrity of virtual racing relies upon accurate power readings sent from the smart trainer to a cloud-based competition software, discrepancies in these metrics are most likely to affect the outcome of an event. The testing apparatus used a motor in place of a human rider to control the repeatability and capability of the testing system. Power measurements consisting of a torque and rotational velocity sensor were connected to the motor output to determine the precise power delivered to a smart trainer. The known input power was compared to the power reported by the smart trainer as transmitted over the ANT+ wireless protocol and compared across the testing metrics. An electromagnetic brake system was incorporated to characterize the transmission losses from the motor to the smart trainer, enabling the accurate determination of the actual power input into the smart trainers. The testing procedure covered each virtual gradient ranging from − 8 to 15% at every power level between 100 and 800 watts. The power reading error of smart trainers ranged from \(\approx\) 0 to > 16%, and the resistance error ranged from < 1% to over 100%. These large errors show how critical the homologation of smart trainers is for fair competition.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Pender K (2020) Virtual reality: how cyclists are pedalling through the pandemic. https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2020/dec/18/virtual-reality-how-cyclists-are-pedalling-through-the-pandemic

  2. Reed R (2021) Do you even Zwift? The indoor cycling platform is having a moment. https://www.forbes.com/sites/robreed/2021/02/17/do-you-even-zwift-the-indoor-cycling-platform-is-having-a-moment/?sh=8053bca3f860

  3. Tom Dumoulin: Virtual cycling it’s nowhere near the real thing. http://cycling.today/tom-dumoulin-virtual-cycling-its-nowhere-near-the-real-thing/

  4. Rojas-Valverde D, Córdoba-Blanco JM, González-Salazar L (2022) Cyclists or avatars: is virtual cycling filling a short-term void during COVID-19 lockdown? Manag Sport Leis 27(1–2):158–162. https://doi.org/10.1080/23750472.2021.1879665

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. McIlroy B, Passfield L, Holmberg HC, Sperlich B (2021) Virtual training of endurance cycling—a summary of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. Front Sports Active Living 3(March):1–7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2021.631101

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Wilmore J, Constable S, Stanforth P, Buono M, Tsao Y, Lowdon B, RATLIFF RJ, FREDERICK RONALD (1982) Mechanical and physiological calibration of four cycle ergometers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 14(4):322

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Russell JC, Dale JD (1986) Dynamic torquemeter calibration of bicycle ergometers. J Appl Physiol 61(3):1217–1220. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1986.61.3.1217

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Woods GF, Day L, Withers RT, Ilsley AH, Maxwell BF (1994) The dynamic calibration of cycle ergometers. Int J Sports Med 15(4):168–171. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2007-1021041

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Maxwell BF, Withers RT, Ilsley AH, Wakim MJ, Woods GF, Day L (1998) Dynamic calibration of mechanically, air- and electromagnetically braked cycle ergometers. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 78(4):346–352. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004210050430

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Gardner AS, Stephens S, Martin DT, Lawton E, Lee H, Jenkins D (2004) Accuracy of SRM and power tap power monitoring systems for bicycling. Med Sci Sports Exerc 36(7):1252–1258. https://doi.org/10.1249/01.MSS.0000132380.21785.03

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Abbiss C, Quod M, Levin G, Martin D, Laursen P (2009) Accuracy of the Velotron ergometer and SRM power meter. Int J Sports Med 30(02):107–112. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0028-1103285

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Zadow EK, Kitic CM, Wu SS, Smith ST, Fell JW (2016) Validity of power settings of the Wahoo KICKR power trainer. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 11(8):1115–1117. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2015-0733

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Hoon MW, Michael SW, Patton RL, Chapman PG, Areta JL (2016) A comparison of the accuracy and reliability of the Wahoo KICKR and SRM power meter. J Sci Cycl 5(3):11–15

    Google Scholar 

  14. Drouet JM, Champoux Y, Bergeron F (2008) A user-friendly calibration system for bicycle ergometers, home trainers and bicycle power monitoring devices. Sports Eng 11(1):15–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12283-008-0003-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Wainwright B, Cooke CB, O’Hara JP (2017) The validity and reliability of a sample of 10 Wattbike cycle ergometers. J Sports Sci 35(14):1451–1458. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2016.1215495

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Bouillod A, Soto-Romero G, Grappe F, Bertucci W, Brunet E, Cassirame J (2022) Caveats and recommendations to assess the validity and reliability of cycling power meters: a systematic scoping review. Sensors 22(1):386. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22010386

    Article  ADS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  17. Dowd T, Miller J, Heflin D, Mansson JA, Sweldens W (2020). Bicycle Trainer Homologation Apparatus. U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63/122,449

  18. Hollingworth NE, Hills DA (1986) Theoretical efficiency of a cranked link chain drive. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part C J Mech Eng Sci 200(5):375–377. https://doi.org/10.1243/PIME_PROC_1986_200_141_02

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Lodge CJ (2000) Experimental measurements of roller chain transmission efficiency. In: Proceedings of the international conference on gearing, transmissions, and mechanical systems, pp 603–612

  20. Lodge CJ, Burgess SC (2002) A model of the tension and transmission efficiency of a bush roller chain. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part C J Mech Eng Sci 216(4):385–394. https://doi.org/10.1243/0954406021525179

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Burgess SC (1999) Improving cycling performance with large sprockets. Sports Eng 1(2):107–113. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1460-2687.1999.00012.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Burgess S, Lodge C (2004) Optimisation of the chain drive system on sports motorcycles. Sports Eng 7(2):65–73. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02915918

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Spicer JB, Richardson CJK, Ehrlich MJ, Bernstein JR, Fukuda M, Terada M (2001) Effects of frictional loss on bicycle chain drive efficiency. J Mech Des 123(4):598–605. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.1412848

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. G. Canada (2022) ANT+ device profile fitness equipment. www.thisisant.com

  25. Zwift Power (2023). https://zwiftpower.com/

Download references

Acknowledgements

The smart trainer apparatus team would like to thank the Ray Ewry Sports Engineering Center at Purdue University for financial support on this project. We would also like thank the contributions made by student researchers Patrick Cavanaugh and Eleanor Dyas, in addition to the valuable input from Wim Sweldens during the conception of the project.

Author information

Author notes

  1. Diana Heflin and Justin Miller contributed equally to this work.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Ray Ewry Sports Engineering Center (RESEC), Purdue University, 1105 Endeavour Drive Suite 400, West Lafayette, IN, 47906, USA

    Teal Dowd, Diana Heflin, Justin Miller & Jan-Anders Mansson

  2. Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI), Allée Ferdi Kübler 12, 1860, Aigle, Switzerland

    Michael Rogers & Andrei Krasilnikau

Authors
  1. Teal Dowd
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Diana Heflin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Justin Miller
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Michael Rogers
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Andrei Krasilnikau
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Jan-Anders Mansson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jan-Anders Mansson.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

Dr. Jan-Anders Mansson served as a guest editor for the Topical Collection on The Engineering of Sport 14, but was not involved in the blind peer review process of this work.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Dowd, T., Heflin, D., Miller, J. et al. Apparatus and methodology for smart trainer homologation analysis. Sports Eng 27, 6 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12283-023-00447-z

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12283-023-00447-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation