Advertisement

Building Simulation

, Volume 11, Issue 5, pp 821–870 | Cite as

LES over RANS in building simulation for outdoor and indoor applications: A foregone conclusion?

  • Bert BlockenEmail author
Open Access
Review Article
First Online:

Abstract

Large Eddy Simulation (LES) undeniably has the potential to provide more accurate and more reliable results than simulations based on the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) approach. However, LES entails a higher simulation complexity and a much higher computational cost. In spite of some claims made in the past decades that LES would render RANS obsolete, RANS remains widely used in both research and engineering practice. This paper attempts to answer the questions why this is the case and whether this is justified, from the viewpoint of building simulation, both for outdoor and indoor applications. First, the governing equations and a brief overview of the history of LES and RANS are presented. Next, relevant highlights from some previous position papers on LES versus RANS are provided. Given their importance, the availability or unavailability of best practice guidelines is outlined. Subsequently, why RANS is still frequently used and whether this is justified or not is illustrated by examples for five application areas in building simulation: pedestrian-level wind comfort, near-field pollutant dispersion, urban thermal environment, natural ventilation of buildings and indoor airflow. It is shown that the answers vary depending on the application area but also depending on other—less obvious—parameters such as the building configuration under study. Finally, a discussion and conclusions including perspectives on the future of LES and RANS in building simulation are provided.

Keywords

computational fluid dynamics (CFD) position paper urban physics building physics fluid mechanics 
Download to read the full article text

References

  1. Abdalla IE, Cook MJ, Rees SJ, Yang Z (2007). Large-eddy simulation of buoyancy-driven natural ventilation in an enclosure with a point heat source. International Journal of Computational Fluid Dynamics, 21: 231–245.zbMATHGoogle Scholar
  2. Adamek K, Vasan N, Elshaer A, English E, Bitsuamlak G (2017). Pedestrian level wind assessment through city development: A study of the financial district in Toronto. Sustainable Cities and Society, 35: 178–190.Google Scholar
  3. AIAA (1998). Guide for the verification and validation of computational fluid dynamics simulations. AIAA-G-077-1998. Reston, VA. USA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.Google Scholar
  4. Alamdari F, Hammond GP, Melo C (1984). ‘Appropriate’ calculation methods for convective heat transfer from building surfaces. In: Proceedings of the 1st National Conference on Heat Transfer, Leed, UK. Published in 1ChemE Syrup. series no. 86(2): 1201–1211.Google Scholar
  5. Allegrini J, Kubilay A (2017). Wind sheltering effect of a small railway station shelter and its impact on wind comfort for passengers. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 164: 82–95.Google Scholar
  6. Allegrini J, Carmeliet J (2018). Simulations of local heat islands in Zürich with coupled CFD and building energy models. Urban Climate, 24: 340–359.Google Scholar
  7. An K, Fung JCH, Yim SHL (2013). Sensitivity of inflow boundary conditions on downstream wind and turbulence profiles through building obstacles using a CFD approach. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 115: 137–149.Google Scholar
  8. Anderson JD Jr (1995). Computational Fluid Dynamics: The Basics with Applications. New York: Mc Graw-Hill.Google Scholar
  9. Antoniou N, Montazeri H, Wigo H, Neophytou M, Blocken B, Sandberg M (2017). CFD and wind-tunnel analysis of outdoor ventilation in a real compact heterogeneous urban area: Evaluation using “air delay”. Building and Environment, 126: 355–372.Google Scholar
  10. Ashford OM (1985). Prophet or Professor? The Life and Work of L.F. Richardson. Bristol, UK: Adam Hilger.Google Scholar
  11. Ashie Y, Kono T (2011). Urban-scale CFD analysis in support of a climate-sensitive design for the Tokyo Bay area. International Journal of Climatology, 31: 174–188.Google Scholar
  12. ASME (2009). Standard for verification and validation in Computational Fluid Dynamics and heat transfer. ASME VandV 20–2009, The American Society of Mechanical Engineers.Google Scholar
  13. Awbi HB, Setrak AA (1986). Numerical solution of ventilation air jet. In: Proceedings of the 5th Symposium on the Use of Computers for Environmental Engineering Related to Buildings, CIBSE, Bath, UK.Google Scholar
  14. Awbi HB (1989). Application of computational fluid dynamics in room ventilation. Building and Environment, 24: 73–84.Google Scholar
  15. Awbi HB (2003). Ventilation of Buildings. London: Spon Press.Google Scholar
  16. Awbi HB (2008). Ventilation Systems: Design and Performance. London: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
  17. Aydin YC, Mirzaei PA (2017). Wind-driven ventilation improvement with plan typology alteration: A CFD case study of traditional Turkish architecture. Building Simulation, 10: 239–254.Google Scholar
  18. Baetke F, Werner H, Wengle H (1990). Numerical simulation of turbulent flow over surface-mounted obstacles with sharp edges and corners. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 35: 129–147.Google Scholar
  19. Baik JJ, Park SB (2009). Urban flow and dispersion simulation using a CFD model coupled to a mesoscale model. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 48: 1667–1681.Google Scholar
  20. Baker CJ (2007). Wind engineering—Past, present and future. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 95: 843–870.Google Scholar
  21. Bartzis JG, Vlachogiannis D, Sfetsos A (2004). Thematic area 5: Best practice advice for environmental flows. The QNET-CFD Network Newsletter, 2(4): 34–39.Google Scholar
  22. Baskaran A, Stathopoulos T (1989). Computational evaluation of wind effects on buildings. Building and Environment, 24: 325–333.Google Scholar
  23. Baskaran A, Stathopoulos T (1992). Influence of computational parameters on the evaluation of wind effects on the building envelope. Building and Environment, 27: 39–49.Google Scholar
  24. Bazdidi-Tehrani F, Ghafouri A, Jadidi M (2013). Grid resolution assessment in large eddy simulation of dispersion around an isolated cubic building. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 121: 1–15.Google Scholar
  25. Beranek WJ, van Koten H (1979a). Visual techniques for the determination of wind environment. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 4: 295–306.Google Scholar
  26. Beranek WJ, van Koten H (1979b). Beperken van windhinder om gebouwen, deel 1, Stichting Bouwresearch no. 65. Kluwer Technische Boeken BV, Deventer. (in Dutch)Google Scholar
  27. Beranek WJ (1982). Beperken van windhinder om gebouwen, deel 2, Stichting Bouwresearch no. 90. Kluwer Technische Boeken BV, Deventer. (in Dutch)Google Scholar
  28. Blocken B, Roels S, Carmeliet J (2004). Modification of pedestrian wind comfort in the Silvertop Tower passages by an automatic control system. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 92: 849–873.Google Scholar
  29. Blocken B, Stathopoulos T, Carmeliet J (2007a). CFD simulation of the atmospheric boundary layer: Wall function problems. Atmospheric Environment, 41: 238–252.Google Scholar
  30. Blocken B, Carmeliet J, Stathopoulos T (2007b). CFD evaluation of wind speed conditions in passages between parallel buildings— Effect of wall-function roughness modifications for the atmospheric boundary layer flow. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 95: 941–962.Google Scholar
  31. Blocken B, Carmeliet J (2008). Pedestrian wind conditions at outdoor platforms in a high-rise apartment building: Generic subconfiguration validation, wind comfort assessment and uncertainty issues. Wind and Structures, 11: 51–70.Google Scholar
  32. Blocken B, Stathopoulos T, Carmeliet J (2008a). Wind environmental conditions in passages between two long narrow perpendicular buildings. Journal of Aerospace Engineering, 21: 280–287.Google Scholar
  33. Blocken B, Moonen P, Stathopoulos T, Carmeliet J (2008b). A numerical study on the existence of the Venturi effect in passages between perpendicular buildings. Journal of Engineering Mechanics, 134: 1021–1028.Google Scholar
  34. Blocken B, Stathopoulos T, Saathoff P, Wang X (2008c). Numerical evaluation of pollutant dispersion in the built environment: Comparisons between models and experiments. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 96: 1817–1831.Google Scholar
  35. Blocken B, Persoon J (2009). Pedestrian wind comfort around a large football stadium in an urban environment: CFD simulation, validation and application of the new Dutch wind nuisance standard. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 97: 255–270.Google Scholar
  36. Blocken B, Stathopoulos T, Carmeliet J, Hensen JLM (2011). Application of computational fluid dynamics in building performance simulation for the outdoor environment: an overview. Journal of Building Performance Simulation, 4: 157–184.Google Scholar
  37. Blocken B, Janssen WD, van Hooff T (2012). CFD simulation for pedestrian wind comfort and wind safety in urban areas: General decision framework and case study for the Eindhoven University campus. Environmental Modelling and Software, 30: 15–34.Google Scholar
  38. Blocken B, Gualtieri C (2012). Ten iterative steps for model development and evaluation applied to Computational Fluid Dynamics for Environmental Fluid Mechanics. Environmental Modelling and Software, 33: 1–22.Google Scholar
  39. Blocken B (2014). 50 years of Computational Wind Engineering: Past, present and future. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 129: 69–102.Google Scholar
  40. Blocken B (2015). Computational Fluid Dynamics for urban physics: Importance, scales, possibilities, limitations and ten tips and tricks towards accurate and reliable simulations. Building and Environment, 91: 219–245.Google Scholar
  41. Blocken B, Vervoort R, van Hooff T (2016a). Reduction of outdoor particulate matter concentrations by local removal in semi-enclosed parking garages: A preliminary case study for Eindhoven city center. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 159: 80–98.Google Scholar
  42. Blocken B, Stathopoulos T, van Beeck JPAJ (2016b). Pedestrian-level wind conditions around buildings: Review of wind-tunnel and CFD techniques and their accuracy for wind comfort assessment. Building and Environment, 100: 50–81.Google Scholar
  43. Bolster DT, Linden PF (2007). Contaminants in ventilated filling boxes. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 591: 97–116.zbMATHGoogle Scholar
  44. Bottema M (1993). Wind climate and urban geometry. PhD Thesis, Eindhoven University of Technology, the Netherlands.Google Scholar
  45. Boussinesq J (1877). Essai sur la théorie des eaux courantes. Mémoires présentés par divers savants à l'Académie des Sciences, 23 (1): 1–680.zbMATHGoogle Scholar
  46. Britter RE, Hunt JCR (1979). Velocity measurements and order of magnitude estimates of the flow between two buildings in a simulated atmospheric boundary layer. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 4: 165–182.Google Scholar
  47. Britter R, Schatzmann M (2007). Model Evaluation Guidance and Protocol Document COST Action 732. COST Office Brussels.Google Scholar
  48. Broyd TW, Dean RB, Oldfield SG, Moult A (1983). The use of a computational method to assess the safety and quality of ventilation in industrial buildings. In: Proceedings of Conference on Heat and Fluid Flow in Nuclear and Process Plant Safety, London, UK.Google Scholar
  49. Buccolieri R, Jeanjean APR, Gatto E, Leigh RJ (2018). The impact of trees on street ventilation, NOx and PM2.5 concentrations across heights in Marylebone Rd street canyon, central London. Sustainable Cities and Society, 41: 227–241.Google Scholar
  50. Casey M, Wintergerste T (2000). Best Practice Guidelines, ERCOFTAC Special Interest Group on Quality and Trust in Industrial CFD, ERCOFTAC, Brussels.Google Scholar
  51. Castro IP, Robins AG (1977). The flow around a surface-mounted cube in uniform and turbulent streams. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 79: 307–335.Google Scholar
  52. Castro IP, Graham JMR (1999). Numerical wind engineering: The way ahead? Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers— Structures and Buildings, 134: 275–277.Google Scholar
  53. Chang T-J, Kao H-M, Hsieh Y-F (2007). Numerical study of the effect of ventilation pattern on coarse, fine, and very fine particulate matter removal in partitioned indoor environment. Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association, 57: 179–189.Google Scholar
  54. Charney JG, Fjörtoft R, von Neumann J (1950). Numerical integration of the barotropic vorticity equation. Tellus, 2: 237–254.MathSciNetGoogle Scholar
  55. Chen Q (1995). Comparison of different k-e models for indoor air flow computations. Numerical Heat Transfer, Part B: Fundamentals, 28: 353–369.Google Scholar
  56. Chen Q (1996). Prediction of room air motion by Reynolds-stress models. Building and Environment, 31: 233–244.Google Scholar
  57. Chen Q (1997). Computational fluid dynamics for HVAC: Successes and failures. ASHRAE Transactions, 103(1): 1l–10.MathSciNetGoogle Scholar
  58. Chen Q, Chao NT (1997). Comparing turbulence models for buoyant plume and displacement ventilation simulation. Indoor and Built Environment, 6: 140–149.Google Scholar
  59. Chen Q, Srebric J (2001). How to verify, validate and report indoor environment modeling CFD analysis. ASHRAE RP-1133. Final Report, ASHRAE TC 4.10, Indoor Environmental Modeling.Google Scholar
  60. Chen Q (2009). Ventilation performance prediction for buildings: A method overview and recent applications. Building and Environment, 44: 848–858.Google Scholar
  61. Chu CR, Chiang BF (2013). Wind-driven cross ventilation with internal obstacles. Energy and Buildings, 67: 201–209.Google Scholar
  62. Conan B, van Beeck J, Aubrun S (2012). Sand erosion technique applied to wind resource assessment. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 104–106: 322–329.Google Scholar
  63. Cook NJ (1975). A boundary layer wind tunnel for building aerodynamics. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 1: 3–12.Google Scholar
  64. Davidson L, Nielsen PV (1996). Large eddy simulation of the flow in a three-dimensional ventilation room. In: Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Air Distribution in Rooms, ROOMVENT’96, pp. 161–168.Google Scholar
  65. Deardorff JW (1970a). A numerical study of three-dimensional turbulent channel flow at large Reynolds numbers. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 41: 453–480.zbMATHGoogle Scholar
  66. Deardorff JW (1970b). A three-dimensional numerical investigation of the idealized planetary boundary layer. Geophysical Fluid Dynamics, 1: 377–410.Google Scholar
  67. Deardorff JW (1970c). Preliminary results from numerical integrations of the unstable planetary boundary layer. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 27: 1209–1211.Google Scholar
  68. Deardorff JW (1970d). Convective velocity and temperature scales for the unstable planetary boundary layer and for Rayleigh convection. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 27: 1211–1213.Google Scholar
  69. Deardorff JW (1972). Numerical investigation of neutral and unstable planetary boundary layers. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 29: 91–115.Google Scholar
  70. Dhunny AZ, Samkhaniani N, Lollchund MR, Rughooputh SDDV (2018). Investigation of multi-level wind flow characteristics and pedestrian comfort in a tropical city. Urban Climate, 24: 185–204.Google Scholar
  71. Di Sabatino S, Buccolieri R, Pulvirtenti B, Britter R (2007). Simulations of pollutant dispersion within idealised urban-type geometries with CFD and integral models. Atmospheric Environment, 41: 8316–8329.Google Scholar
  72. Du Y, Mak CM, Ai Z (2018). Modelling of pedestrian level wind environment on a high-quality mesh: A case study for the HKPolyU campus. Environmental Modelling & Software, 103: 105–119.Google Scholar
  73. Efthimiou GC, Adronopoulos S, Tavares R, Bartzis JG (2017). CFD-RANS prediction of the dispersion of a hazardous airborne material released during a real accident in an industrial environment. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 46: 23–36.Google Scholar
  74. Emmerich SJ, McGrattan KB (1998). Application of a Large Eddy Simulation model to study room airflow. ASHRAE Transactions, 104(1): 1128–1137.Google Scholar
  75. Etheridge DW, Sandberg M (1996). Building Ventilation: Theory and Measurement. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
  76. Etheridge D (2011). Natural Ventilation of Buildings: Theory, Measurement and Design. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
  77. Evola G, Popov V (2006). Computational analysis of wind driven natural ventilation in buildings. Energy and Buildings, 38: 491–501.Google Scholar
  78. Ferziger JH (1990). Approaches to turbulent flow computation: applications to flow over obstacles. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 35: 1–19.Google Scholar
  79. Ferziger JH (1993). Simulation of complex turbulent flows: recent advances and prospects in wind engineering. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 46–47: 195–212.Google Scholar
  80. Ferziger JH, Peric M (1996). Computational Methods for Fluid Dynamics. Berlin: Springer.zbMATHGoogle Scholar
  81. Flaherty JE, Stock D, Lamb B (2007). Computational fluid dynamic simulations of plume dispersion in urban Oklahoma city. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 46: 2110–2126.Google Scholar
  82. Franke J, Hellsten A, Schlünzen H, Carissimo B (2007). Best practice guideline for the CFD simulation of flows in the urban environment. COST Office Brussels.Google Scholar
  83. Franke J, Hellsten A, Schlünzen KH, Carissimo B (2011). The COST 732 Best Practice Guideline for CFD simulation of flows in the urban environment: A summary. International Journal of Environment and Pollution, 44: 419–427.Google Scholar
  84. Franke J, Hirsch C, Jensen AG, Krüs HW, Schatzmann M, Westbury PS, Miles SD, Wisse JA, Wright NG (2004). Recommendations on the use of CFD in wind engineering. In: van Beeck JPAJ (Ed), Proceedings of the International Conference on Urban Wind Engineering and Building Aerodynamics. COST Action C14, Impact of Wind and Storm on City Life Built Environment, Sint-Genesius-Rode, Belgium.Google Scholar
  85. Fraser SM, Carey C, Moustafa AAA (1990). Numerical and experimental analysis of flow around isolated and shielded cubes. Applied Mathematical Modelling, 14: 588–597.zbMATHGoogle Scholar
  86. Freitas CJ (1993). Journal of Fluids Engineering editorial policy statement on the control of numerical accuracy. Journal of Fluids Engineering, 115: 339–340.Google Scholar
  87. Frost W, Maus JR, Fichtl GH (1974). A boundary-layer analysis of atmospheric motion over a semi-elliptical surface obstruction. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 7: 165–184.Google Scholar
  88. Gadilhe A, Janvier L, Barnaud G (1993). Numerical and experimental modelling of the three-dimensional turbulent wind flow through an urban square. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 46–47: 755–763.Google Scholar
  89. Gao Z, Bresson R, Qu Y, Milliez M, de Munck C, Carissimo B (2018). High resolution unsteady RANS simulation of wind, thermal effects and pollution dispersion for studying urban renewal scenarios in a neighborhood of Toulouse. Urban Climate, 23: 114–130.Google Scholar
  90. Garbero V, Salizzoni P, Soulhac L (2010). Experimental study of pollutant dispersion within a network of streets. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 136: 457–487.Google Scholar
  91. Garcia-Sánchez C, Van Tendeloo G, Gorlé C (2017). Quantifying inflow uncertainties in RANS simulations of urban pollutant dispersion. Atmospheric Environment, 161: 263–273.Google Scholar
  92. Germano M, Piomelli U, Moin P, Cabot WH (1991). A dynamic subgrid-scale eddy viscosity model. Physics of Fluids A: Fluid Dynamics, 3: 1760–1765.zbMATHGoogle Scholar
  93. Gorlé C, van Beeck J, Rambaud P, Van Tendeloo G (2009). CFD modelling of small particle dispersion: The influence of the turbulence kinetic energy in the atmospheric boundary layer. Atmospheric Environment, 43: 673–681.Google Scholar
  94. Gosman AD, Nielsen PV, Restivo A, Whitelaw JH (1980). The flow properties of rooms with small ventilation openings. Journal of Fluids Engineering, 102: 316–323.Google Scholar
  95. Gosman AD (1999). Developments in CFD for industrial and environmental applications in wind engineering. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 81: 21–39.Google Scholar
  96. Gousseau P, Blocken B, Stathopoulos T, van Heijst GJF (2011a). CFD simulation of near-field pollutant dispersion on a highresolution grid: A case study by LES and RANS for a building group in downtown Montreal. Atmospheric Environment, 45: 428–438.Google Scholar
  97. Gousseau P, Blocken B, van Heijst GJF (2011b). CFD simulation of pollutant dispersion around isolated buildings: On the role of convective and turbulent mass fluxes in the prediction accuracy. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 194: 422–434.Google Scholar
  98. Gousseau P, Blocken B, van Heijst GJF (2012). Large-Eddy Simulation of pollutant dispersion around a cubical building: analysis of the turbulent mass transport mechanism by unsteady concentration and velocity statistics. Environmental Pollution, 167: 47–57.Google Scholar
  99. Gousseau P, Blocken B, van Heijst GJF (2013). Quality assessment of Large-Eddy Simulation of wind flow around a high-rise building: Validation and solution verification. Computers & Fluids, 79: 120–133.zbMATHGoogle Scholar
  100. Gousseau P, Blocken B, Stathopoulos T, van Heijst GJF (2015). Near-field pollutant dispersion in an actual urban area: Analysis of the mass transport mechanism by high-resolution Large Eddy Simulations. Computers & Fluids, 114: 151–162.MathSciNetzbMATHGoogle Scholar
  101. Gromke C, Blocken B (2015). Influence of avenue-trees on air quality at the urban neighborhood scale. Part II: Traffic pollutant concentrations at pedestrian level. Environmental Pollution, 196: 176–184.Google Scholar
  102. Gromke C, Blocken B, Janssen WD, Merema B, van Hooff T, Timmermans HJP (2015). CFD analysis of transpirational cooling by vegetation: Case study for specific meteorological conditions during a heat wave in Arnhem, Netherlands. Building and Environment, 83: 11–26.Google Scholar
  103. Hanjalic K (2005). Will RANS survive LES? A view of perspectives. Journal of Fluids Engineering, 127: 831–839.Google Scholar
  104. Hanna SR (1989). Plume dispersion and concentration fluctuations in the atmosphere. Encyclopedia of environmental control technology. In: Cheremisinoff PN (Ed), Encyclopedia of Environmental Control Technology, Vol. 2, Air Pollution Control, Chapter 14. Houston, TX, USA: Gulf Publishing Company. pp. 547–582.Google Scholar
  105. Hanna SR, Brown MJ, Camell FE, Chan ST, Coirier WJ, Hansen OR, Huber AH, Kim S, Reynolds RM (2006). Detailed simulations of atmospheric flow and dispersion in downtown Manhattan: An application of five computational fluid dynamics models. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 87: 1713–1726.Google Scholar
  106. Hargreaves DM, Wright NG (2007). On the use of the k-e model in commercial CFD software to model the neutral atmospheric boundary layer. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 95: 355–369.Google Scholar
  107. He J, Song CCS (1999). Evaluation of pedestrian winds in urban area by numerical approach. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 81: 295–309.Google Scholar
  108. Heiselberg P, Murakami S, Roulet CA (1998). Ventilation of large spaces in buildings. Analysis and prediction techniques. IEA Annex 26: Energy Efficient Ventilation of Large Enclosures. Aalborg University, Denmark.Google Scholar
  109. Hibi K, Murakami S, Mochida A (1985). Prediction of room air flow by means of large eddy simulation. Summaries of Technical Papers of Annual Meeting, Architectural Institute of Japan.Google Scholar
  110. Hibi K, Ueda H, Wakahara T, Shimada K (1993). Use of large eddy simulation to measure fluctuating pressure fields around buildings with wall openings. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 46–47: 239–244.Google Scholar
  111. Hirsch C, Bouffioux V, Wilquem F (2002). CFD simulation of the impact of new buildings on wind comfort in an urban area. In: Proceedings of Cost Action C14, Impact of Wind and Storm on City Life and Built Environment, Nantes, France.Google Scholar
  112. Hirt CW, Cook JL (1972). Calculating three-dimensional flows around structures and over rough terrain. Journal of Computational Physics, 10: 324–340.zbMATHGoogle Scholar
  113. Holmes MJ (1982). The application of fluid mechanics simulation program PHOEN1CS to a few typical HVAC problems. London: Ove Arup Partnership.Google Scholar
  114. Holmes MJ, Whittle GE (1987). How accurate are the predictions of complex air movement models? Building Services Engineering Research and Technology, 8(2): 29–31.Google Scholar
  115. Holmes MJ, Lam JKW, Ruddick KG, Whittle GE (1990). Computation of conduction, convection and radiation in the perimeter zone of an office space. In: Proceedings of International Conference of ROOMVENT, Oslo, Norway.Google Scholar
  116. Horan JM, Finn DP (2008). Sensitivity of air change rates in a naturally ventilated atrium space subject to variations in external wind speed and direction. Energy and Buildings, 40: 1577–1585.Google Scholar
  117. Hu CH, Kurabuchi T, Ohba M (2005). Numerical study of crossventilation using two-equation RANS turbulence models. International Journal of Ventilation, 4: 123–131.Google Scholar
  118. Hu CH, Ohba M, Yoshie R (2008). CFD modelling of unsteady cross ventilation flows using LES. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 96: 1692–1706.Google Scholar
  119. Huber AH, Snyder WH (1982). Wind tunnel investigation of the effects of a rectangular-shaped building on dispersion of effluents from short adjacent stacks. Atmospheric Environment, 16: 2837–2848.Google Scholar
  120. Hunt GR, Linden PF (1999). The fluid mechanics of natural ventilation—Displacement ventilation by buoyancy-driven flows assisted by wind. Building and Environment, 34: 707–720.Google Scholar
  121. Hunt JCR (1998). Lewis Fry Richardson and his contributions to mathematics, meteorology, and models of conflict. Annual Reviews of Fluid Mechanics, 30: xiii–xxxvi.MathSciNetGoogle Scholar
  122. Iqbal QMZ, Chan ALS (2016). Pedestrian level wind environment assessment around group of high-rise cross-shaped buildings: Effect of building shape, separation and orientation. Building and Environment, 101: 45–63.Google Scholar
  123. Irwin HPAH (1981). A simple omnidirectional sensor for wind-tunnel studies of pedestrian-level winds. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 7: 219–239.Google Scholar
  124. Ishizu Y, Kaneki K (1984). Evaluation of ventilation systems through numerical computation and presentation of a new ventilation model. ASHRAE Transactions, 24: 47–57.Google Scholar
  125. Isyumov N, Davenport AG (1975). Comparison of full-scale and wind tunnel wind speed measurements in the commerce court plaza. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 1: 201–212.Google Scholar
  126. Isyumov N (1978). Studies of the pedestrian level wind environment at the boundary layer wind tunnel laboratory of the University of Western Ontario. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 3: 187–200.Google Scholar
  127. Jacob J, Sagaut P (2018). Wind comfort assessment by means of large eddy simulation with lattice Boltzmann method in full scale city area. Building and Environment, 139: 110–124.Google Scholar
  128. Jakeman AJ, Letcher RA, Norton JP (2006). Ten iterative steps in development and evaluation of environmental models. Environmental Modelling and Software, 21: 602–614.Google Scholar
  129. Janssen WD, Blocken B, van Hooff T (2013). Pedestrian wind comfort around buildings: Comparison of wind comfort criteria based on whole-flow field data for a complex case study. Building and Environment, 59: 547–562.Google Scholar
  130. Jeanjean APR, Gallagher J, Monks PS, Leigh RJ (2017). Ranking current and prospective NO2 pollution mitigation strategies: An environmental and economic modelling investigation in Oxford Street, London. Environmental Pollution, 225: 587–597.Google Scholar
  131. Jiang Y, Chen Q (2002). Effect of fluctuating wind direction on cross natural ventilation in buildings from large eddy simulation. Building and Environment, 37: 379–386.Google Scholar
  132. Jiang Y, Alexander D, Jenkins H, Arthur R, Chen Q (2003). Natural ventilation in buildings: Measurement in a wind tunnel and numerical simulation with large-eddy simulation. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 91: 331–353.Google Scholar
  133. Jones W, Launder BE (1972). The prediction of laminarization with a two-equation model of turbulence. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 15: 301–314.Google Scholar
  134. Jones PJ, O’Sullivan PE (1987). Development of a model to predict air flow and heat distribution in factories. SERC Final report.Google Scholar
  135. Jones PJ, Reed N (1988). Air flow in large spaces. PHOENICS Newsletter, No. 13, CHAM Ltd.Google Scholar
  136. Jones PJ (1990). Room air distribution and ventilation effectiveness in air-conditioned offices. In: Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Chinnock, Toronto, Canada, pp. 133–138.Google Scholar
  137. Jones PJ, Waters RA (1990). Designing the environment in and around buildings. Construction, 76: 33–36.Google Scholar
  138. Jones PJ, Waters RA (1991). Modelling the atrium environment. In: Proceedings of International Conference on Architecture and Engineering, Nottingham, UK.Google Scholar
  139. Jones PJ, Whittle GE (1992). Computational fluid dynamics for building air flow prediction—Current status and capabilities. Building and Environment, 27: 321–338.Google Scholar
  140. Juan YH, Yang AS, Wen CY, Lee YT, Wang PC (2017). Optimization procedures for enhancement of city breathability using arcade design in a realistic high-rise urban area. Building and Environment, 121: 247–261.Google Scholar
  141. Kang G, Kim JJ, Kim DJ, Choi W, Park SJ (2017). Development of a computational fluid dynamics model with tree drag parameterizations: Application to pedestrian wind comfort in an urban area. Building and Environment, 124: 209–218.Google Scholar
  142. Kang J-H, Lee S-J (2008). Improvement of natural ventilation in a large factory building using a louver ventilator. Building and Environment, 43: 2132–2141.Google Scholar
  143. Kang L, Zhou X, van Hooff T, Blocken B, Gu M (2018). CFD simulation of snow transport over flat, uniformly rough, open terrain: Impact of physical and computational parameters. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 177: 213–226.Google Scholar
  144. Karadimou DP, Markatos NC (2016). Modelling of two-phase, transient airflow and particles distribution in the indoor environment by Large Eddy Simulation. Journal of Turbulence, 17: 216–236.MathSciNetGoogle Scholar
  145. Karava P, Stathopoulos T, Athienitis AK (2011). Airflow assessment in cross-ventilated buildings with operable facade elements. Building and Environment, 46: 266–279.Google Scholar
  146. Karava P, Stathopoulos T (2012). Wind-induced internal pressures in buildings with large façade openings. Journal of Engineering Mechanics, 138: 358–370.Google Scholar
  147. Karra S, Malki-Epshtein L, Neophytou MKA (2017). Air flow and pollution in a real, heterogeneous urban street canyon: A field and laboratory study. Atmospheric Environment, 165: 370–384.Google Scholar
  148. Katayama T, Tsutsumi J, Ishii A (1992). Full-scale measurements and wind tunnel tests on cross-ventilation. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 44: 2553–2562.Google Scholar
  149. Kato S, Murakami S, Mochida A, Akabayashi S, Tominaga Y (1992). Velocity-pressure field of cross-ventilation with open windows analyzed by wind tunnel and numerical simulation. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 44: 2575–2586.Google Scholar
  150. Kato M, Launder BE (1993). The modelling of turbulent flow around stationary and vibrating square cylinders. In: Proceedings of the 9th Symposium on Turbulent Shear Flows.Google Scholar
  151. Kawamura S, Kimoto E, Fukushima T, Taniike Y (1988). Environmental wind characteristics around the base of a tall building—A comparison between model test and full-scale experiment. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 28: 149–158.Google Scholar
  152. Khayrullina A, van Hooff T, Blocken B, van Heijst GJF (2017). PIV measurements of isothermal plane turbulent impinging jets at moderate Reynolds numbers. Experiments in Fluids, 58: Article 31.Google Scholar
  153. Kimura R (2002). Numerical weather prediction. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 90: 1403–1414.Google Scholar
  154. Klok L, Zwart S, Verhagen H, Mauri E (2012). The surface heat island of Rotterdam and its relationship with urban surface characteristics. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 64: 23–29.Google Scholar
  155. Kolmogorov AN (1941). The local structure of turbulence in incompressible viscous fluid for very large Reynolds numbers. Proceedings of the USSR Academy of Sciences (C. R. Acad. Sci. URSS), 30: 301–305.MathSciNetGoogle Scholar
  156. Kurabuchi T, Ohba M, Arashiguchi A, Iwabuchi T (2000). Numerical study of airflow structure of a cross ventilated model building. In: Proceedings of Air Distribution in Rooms: Ventilation for Health and Sustainable Environment, pp. 313–318.Google Scholar
  157. Lai MKK, Chan ATY (2007). Large-eddy simulations on indoor/outdoor air quality relationship in an isolated urban building. Journal of Engineering Mechanics, 133: 887–898.Google Scholar
  158. Lam KM (1992). Wind environment around the base of a tall building with a permeable intermediate floor. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 44: 2313–2314.Google Scholar
  159. Lateb M, Masson C, Stathopoulos T, Bédard C (2010). Numerical simulation of pollutant dispersion around a building complex. Building and Environment, 45: 1788–1798.Google Scholar
  160. Lateb M, Masson C, Stathopoulos T, Bédard C (2011). Effect of stack height and exhaust velocity on pollutant dispersion in the wake of a building. Atmospheric Environment, 45: 5150–5163.Google Scholar
  161. Launder BE, Reece GJ, Rodi W (1975). Progress in the development of a Reynolds-stress turbulence closure. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 68: 537–566.zbMATHGoogle Scholar
  162. Lemaire AD (1989). The numerical simulation of the air movement and heat transfer in a heated room resp. a ventilated atrium. TNO Institute of Applied Physics.Google Scholar
  163. Leonard A (1974). Energy cascade in large-eddy simulations of turbulent fluid flow. Advances in Geophysics, 18A: 237–248.Google Scholar
  164. Leschziner MA (1990). Modelling engineering flows with Reynolds stress turbulence closure. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 35: 21–47.Google Scholar
  165. Leschziner MA (1993). Computational modelling of complex turbulent flow—Expectations, reality and prospects. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 46–47: 37–51.Google Scholar
  166. Li WW, Meroney RN (1983a). Gas dispersion near a cubical model building. Part II. Concentration fluctuation measurements. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 12: 35–47.Google Scholar
  167. Li WW, Meroney RN (1983b). Gas dispersion near a cubical model building. Part I. Mean concentration measurements. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 12: 15–33.Google Scholar
  168. Li Y, Stathopoulos T (1997). Numerical evaluation of wind-induced dispersion of pollutants around a building, Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 67–68: 757–766.Google Scholar
  169. Li Y, Nielsen PV (2011). CFD and ventilation research. Indoor Air, 21: 442–453.Google Scholar
  170. Li F, Liu J, Ren J, Cao X (2018). Predicting contaminant dispersion using modified turbulent Schmidt numbers from different vortex structures. Building and Environment, 130: 120–127.Google Scholar
  171. Lilly DK (1962). On the numerical simulation of buoyant convection. Tellus, 14: 148–172.Google Scholar
  172. Lilly DK (1964). Numerical solutions for the shape-preserving twodimensional thermal convection element. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 21: 83–98.Google Scholar
  173. Lilly DK (1991). A proposed modification of the Germano subgrid-scale closure method. Physics of Fluids A: Fluid Dynamics, 4: 633–635.Google Scholar
  174. Lilly DK (2000). The meteorological development of large eddy simulation. In: Kerr RM, Kimura Y (Eds), IUTAM Symposium on Developments in Geophysical Turbulence. Fluid Mechanics and Its Applications, vol 58. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer.Google Scholar
  175. Linden PF, Lane-Derff GF, Smeed DA (1990). Emptying filling boxes: The fluid-mechanics of natural ventilation. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 212: 309–335.Google Scholar
  176. Linden PF (1999). The fluid mechanics of natural ventilation. Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, 31: 201–238.Google Scholar
  177. Liu YS, Cui GX, Wang ZS, Zhang ZS (2011). Large eddy simulation of wind field and pollutant dispersion in downtown Macao. Atmospheric Environment, 45: 2849–2859.Google Scholar
  178. Liu YS, Miao SG, Zhang CL, Cui GX, Zhang ZS (2012). Study on micro-atmospheric environment by coupling large eddy simulation with mesoscale model. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 107–108: 106–117.Google Scholar
  179. Liu SC, Novoselac A (2014). Lagrangian particle modeling in the indoor environment: A comparison of RANS and LES turbulence methods (RP-1512). HVAC&R Research, 20: 480–495.Google Scholar
  180. Liu S, Pan W, Zhang H, Cheng X, Long Z, Chen Q (2017). CFD simulations of wind distribution in an urban community with a full-scale geometrical model. Building and Environment, 117: 11–23.Google Scholar
  181. Liu S, Pan W, Zhao X, Zhang H, Cheng X, Long Z, Chen Q (2018). Influence of surrounding buildings on wind flow around a building predicted by CFD simulations. Building and Environment, 140: 1–10.Google Scholar
  182. Livermore SR, Woods AW (2007). Natural ventilation of a building with heating at multiple levels. Building and Environment, 42: 1417–1430.Google Scholar
  183. Livesey F, Inculet D, Isyumov N, Davenport AG (1990). A scour technique for evaluation of pedestrian winds, Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 36: 779–789.Google Scholar
  184. Lynch P (2008). The origins of computer weather prediction and climate modeling. Journal of Computational Physics, 227: 3431–3444.MathSciNetzbMATHGoogle Scholar
  185. Markatos NC, Pericleous KA (1984). Laminar and turbulent natural convection in an enclosed cavity. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 27: 755–772.zbMATHGoogle Scholar
  186. Martins NR, da Graça GC (2016). Validation of numerical simulation tools for wind-driven natural ventilation design. Building Simulation, 9: 75–87.Google Scholar
  187. Menter F, Hemstrom B, Henrikkson M, Karlsson R, Latrobe A, Martin A, Muhlbauer P, Scheuerer M, Smith B, Takacs T, Willemsen S (2002). CFD Best Practice Guidelines for CFD Code Validation for Reactor-Safety Applications, Report EVOLECORAD01, Contract No. FIKS-CT-2001-00154.Google Scholar
  188. Menter F (1997). Eddy viscosity transport equations and their relation to the k-e model. Journal of Fluids Engineering, 119: 876–884.Google Scholar
  189. Meroney RN (2004). Wind tunnel and numerical simulation of pollution dispersion: A hybrid approach. Paper for Invited Lecture at the Croucher Advanced Study Institute, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology.Google Scholar
  190. Meroney RN (2009). CFD prediction of airflow in buildings for natural ventilation. In: Proceedings of the11th Americas Conference on Wind Engineering, San Juan, Puerto Rico.Google Scholar
  191. Meroney RN, Leitl BM, Rafailidis S, Schatzmann M (1999). Windtunnel and numerical modeling of flow and dispersion about several building shapes. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 81: 333–345.Google Scholar
  192. Meroney RN (2016). Ten questions concerning hybrid computational/physical model simulation of wind flow in the built environment. Building and Environment, 96: 12–21.Google Scholar
  193. Mochida A, Murakami S, Shoji M, Ishida Y (1993). Numerical simulation of flowfield around Texas Tech Building by Large Eddy Simulation. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 46–47: 455–460.Google Scholar
  194. Mochida A, Tominaga Y, Murakami S, Yoshie R, Ishihara T, Ooka R (2002). Comparison of various k-e models and DSM applied to flow around a high-rise building—Report on AIJ cooperative project for CFD prediction of wind environment. Wind and Structures, 5: 227–244.Google Scholar
  195. Mochida A, Yoshino H, Takeda T, Kakegawa T, Miyauchi S (2005). Methods for controlling airflow in and around a building under cross-ventilation to improve indoor thermal comfort. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 93: 437–449.Google Scholar
  196. Mochida A, Yoshino H, Miyauchi S, Mitamura T (2006). Total analysis of cooling effects of cross-ventilation affected by microclimate around a building. Solar Energy, 80: 371–382.Google Scholar
  197. Mochida A, Lun IYF (2008). Prediction of wind environment and thermal comfort at pedestrian level in urban area. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 96: 1498–1527.Google Scholar
  198. Montazeri H, Blocken B, Janssen WD, van Hooff T (2013). CFD evaluation of new second-skin facade concept for wind comfort on building balconies: Case study for the Park Tower in Antwerp. Building and Environment, 68: 179–192.Google Scholar
  199. Montazeri H, Toparlar Y, Blocken B, Hensen JLM (2017). Simulating the cooling effects of water spray systems in urban landscapes: A computational fluid dynamics study in Rotterdam, The Netherlands. Landscape and Urban Planning, 159: 85–100.Google Scholar
  200. Morsing S, Strøm JS, Zhang G, Kai P (2008). Scale model experiments to determine the effects of internal airflow and floor design on gaseous emissions from animal houses. Biosystems Engineering, 99: 99–104.Google Scholar
  201. Murakami S, Uehara K, Komine H (1979). Amplification of wind speed at ground level due to construction of high-rise building in urban area. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 4: 343–370.Google Scholar
  202. Murakami S, Mochida A, Hibi K (1986). 3-D numerical simulation of room convection by means of large eddy simulation. In: Proceedings of Technical Display for NBS/CBT Building Technology Symposium, Room Convection and Indoor Air Quality Simulation Modelling, NBS Administration Building, Gaithersburg, MD, USA.Google Scholar
  203. Murakami S, Mochida A, Hibi K (1987). Three-dimensional numerical simulation of air flow around a cubic model by means of large eddy simulation. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 25: 291–305.Google Scholar
  204. Murakami S, Mochida A (1988). 3-D numerical simulation of airflow around a cubic model by means of the k-e model. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 31: 283–303.Google Scholar
  205. Murakami S, Mochida A (1989). Three-dimensional numerical simulation of turbulent flow around buildings using the k-e turbulence model. Building and Environment, 24: 51–64.Google Scholar
  206. Murakami S, Kato S (1989). Numerical and experimental study on room airflow—3-D predictions using the k-e turbulence model. Building and Environment, 24: 85–97.Google Scholar
  207. Murakami S (1990a). Computational Wind Engineering. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 36: 517–538.Google Scholar
  208. Murakami S (1990b). Numerical simulation of turbulent flowfield around cubic model: Current status and applications of k-e model and LES. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 33: 139–152.Google Scholar
  209. Murakami S, Mochida A, Hayashi Y (1990a). Examining the k-e model by means of a wind tunnel test and large-eddy simulation of the turbulence structure around a cube. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 35: 87–100.Google Scholar
  210. Murakami S, Mochida A, Hayashi Y (1990b). Numerical simulation of velocity field and diffusion field in an urban area. Energy and Buildings, 15–16: 345–356.Google Scholar
  211. Murakami S, Mochida A, Hayashi Y, Sakamoto S (1992). Numerical study on velocity-pressure field and wind forces for bluff bodies by k-e, ASM and LES. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 44: 2841–2852.Google Scholar
  212. Murakami S (1993). Comparison of various turbulence models applied to a bluff body. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 46–47: 21–36.Google Scholar
  213. Murakami S, Mochida A, Matsui K (1995). Large Eddy Simulation of non-isothermal room airflow—Comparison between standard and dynamic type of Smagorinsky models. Journal of Institute of Industrial Science, 47(2): 7–12.Google Scholar
  214. Murakami S (1997). Current status and future trends in computational wind engineering. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 67–68: 3–34.Google Scholar
  215. Murakami S (1998). Overview of turbulence models applied in CWE- 1997. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 74–76: 1–24.Google Scholar
  216. Murakami S, Ooka R, Mochida A, Yoshida S, Kim S (1999). CFD analysis of wind climate from human scale to urban scale. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 81: 57–81.Google Scholar
  217. NEN (2006a). Wind comfort and wind danger in the built environment, NEN 8100 Dutch Standard. (in Dutch)Google Scholar
  218. NEN (2006b). Application of mean hourly wind speed statistics for the Netherlands, NPR 6097:2006. Dutch Practice Guideline. (in Dutch)Google Scholar
  219. Neophytou MKA, Markides CN, Fokaides PA (2014). An experimental study of the flow through and over two dimensional rectangular roughness elements: Deductions for urban boundary layer parameterizations and exchange processes. Physics of Fluids, 26(8): 086603.Google Scholar
  220. Nicholls M, Pielke R, Meroney R (1993). Large eddy simulation of microburst winds flowing around a building. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 46–47: 229–237.Google Scholar
  221. Nielsen PV (1973). Berechnung der Luftbewegung in einem zwangsbelüfteten Raum. Gesundheits-Ingenieur, 94: 299–302.Google Scholar
  222. Nielsen PV (1974a). Flow in air conditioned rooms. PhD Thesis, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark. (in Danish)Google Scholar
  223. Nielsen PV (1974b). Moisture transfer in air conditioned rooms and cold stores. In: Proceedings of the 2nd International CIB/RILEM Symposium on Moisture Problems in Buildings, Rotterdam, the Netherlands, Paper 1.2.1.Google Scholar
  224. Nielsen PV (1976). Flow in air conditioned rooms. English translation and revision of PhD Thesis, Technical University of Denmark, Copenhagen.Google Scholar
  225. Nielsen PV, Restivo A, Whitelaw JH (1978). The velocity characteristics of ventilated rooms. Journal of Fluids Engineering, 100: 291–298.Google Scholar
  226. Nielsen PV, Restivo A, Whitelaw JH (1979). Buoyancy-affected flows in ventilated rooms. Numerical Heat Transfer, 2: 115–127.Google Scholar
  227. Nielsen PV (1981). Contaminant distribution in industrial areas with forced ventilation and two-dimensional flow. In: IIR-Joint Meeting, Institut for Bygningsteknik, Aalborg Universitet.Google Scholar
  228. Nielsen PV (1998). The selection of turbulence models for prediction of room airflow. ASHRAE Transactions, 104(1B): 1119–1127.Google Scholar
  229. Nielsen PV (2004). Computational fluid dynamics and room air movement. Indoor Air, 14(Suppl. 7): 134–143.MathSciNetGoogle Scholar
  230. Nielsen PV, Allard F, Awbi HB, Davidson L, Schälin A (2007). Computational fluid dynamics in ventilation design. REHVA Guidebook No. 10.Google Scholar
  231. Nielsen PV (2015). Fifty years of CFD for room air distribution. Building and Environment, 91: 78–90.Google Scholar
  232. Niemann HJ (1993). The boundary layer wind tunnel: An experimental tool in building aerodynamics and environmental engineering. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 48: 145–161.Google Scholar
  233. Nomura T, Murakami S, Kato S, Sato M (1980). Correspondence of the three-dimensional numerical analysis of turbulence flow to model experiment. Transactions of AIJ, 298: 69–80.Google Scholar
  234. Norton T, Grant J, Fallon R, Sun DW (2009). Assessing the ventilation effectiveness of naturally ventilated livestock buildings under wind dominated conditions using computational fluid dynamics. Biosystems Engineering, 103: 78–99.Google Scholar
  235. Nozu T, Tamura T (2012). LES of turbulent wind and gas dispersion in a city. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 104–106: 492–499.Google Scholar
  236. Oberkampf WL, Trucano TG, Hirsch C (2004). Verification, validation, and predictive capability in computational engineering and physics. Applied Mechanics Reviews, 57: 345–384.Google Scholar
  237. Panagiotou I, Neophytou MK-A, Hamlyn D, Britter RE (2013). City breathability as quantified by the exchange velocity and its spatial variation in real inhomogeneous urban geometries: An example from central London urban area. Science of the Total Environment, 442: 466–477.Google Scholar
  238. Parente A, Gorlé C, van Beeck J, Benocci C (2011). Improved k-e model and wall function formulation for the RANS simulation of ABL flows. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 99: 267–278.Google Scholar
  239. Partridge JL, Linden PF (2013). Validity of thermally-driven smallscale ventilated filling box models. Experiments in Fluids, 54: 1613.Google Scholar
  240. Paterson DA, Apelt CJ (1986). Computation of wind flows over three-dimensional buildings. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 24: 192–213.Google Scholar
  241. Paterson DA, Apelt CJ (1989). Simulation of wind flow around threedimensional buildings. Building and Environment, 24: 39–50.Google Scholar
  242. Paterson DA, Apelt CJ (1990). Simulation of flow past a cube in a turbulent boundary layer. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 35: 149–176.Google Scholar
  243. Patnaik G, Boris JP, Young TR (2007). Large scale urban contaminant transport simulations with miles. Journal of Fluid Engineering, 129: 1524–1532.Google Scholar
  244. Peng L, Liu JP, Wang Y, Chan P, Lee T, Peng F, Wong M, Li Y (2018). Wind weakening in a dense high-rise city due to over nearly five decades of urbanization. Building and Environment, 138: 207–220.Google Scholar
  245. Penwarden AD, Wise AFE (1975). Wind environment around buildings, Building Research Establishment Report, Department of Environment, BRE, HMSO, London, UK.Google Scholar
  246. Pope SB (1999). A perspective on turbulence modeling. In: Salas MD, Hefner JN, Sakell L (Eds), Modeling Complex Flows. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publisher. pp. 53–67.Google Scholar
  247. Pournazeri S, Princevac M, Venkatram A (2012). Scaling of building affected plume rise and dispersion in water channels and wind tunnels—Revisit of an old problem. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 103: 16–30.Google Scholar
  248. Prandtl L (1904). Über Flüssigkeitsbewegung bei sehr kleiner Reibung. In: Verhandlungen des III Internationalen Mathematiker-Kongresses, Heidelberg. Leipzig, Germany: B G Teubner. pp. 484–491.Google Scholar
  249. Princevac M, Baik JJ, Li X, Pan H, Park SB (2010). Lateral channeling within rectangular arrays of cubical obstacles. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 98: 377–385.Google Scholar
  250. Ramponi R, Blocken B (2012a). CFD simulation of cross-ventilation for a generic isolated building: Impact of computational parameters. Building and Environment, 53: 34–48.Google Scholar
  251. Ramponi R, Blocken B (2012b). CFD simulation of cross-ventilation flow for different isolated building configurations: Validation with wind tunnel measurements and analysis of physical and numerical diffusion effects. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 104–106: 408–418.Google Scholar
  252. Reinartz A, Renz U (1984). Calculations of the temperature and flow field in a room ventilated by a radial air distributor. International Journal of Refrigeration, 7: 308–312.Google Scholar
  253. Reynolds O (1895). On the dynamical theory of incompressible viscous fluids and the determination of the criterion. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. A, 186: 123–164.zbMATHGoogle Scholar
  254. Ricci A, Burlando M, Freda A, Repetto MP (2017a). Wind tunnel measurements of the urban boundary layer development over a historical district in Italy. Building and Environment, 111: 192–206.Google Scholar
  255. Ricci A, Kalkman I, Blocken B, Burlando M, Freda A, Repetto MP (2017b). Local-scale forcing effects on wind flows in an urban environment: Impact of geometrical simplifications. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 170: 238–255.Google Scholar
  256. Richards PJ, Hoxey RP (1992). Computational and wind tunnel modelling of mean wind loads on the Silsoe structures building. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 43: 1641–1652.Google Scholar
  257. Richards PJ, Hoxey RP (1993). Appropriate boundary conditions for computational wind engineering models using the k-e turbulence model. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 46–47: 145–153.Google Scholar
  258. Richards PJ, Mallinson GD, McMillan D, Li YF (2002). Pedestrian level wind speeds in downtown Auckland. Wind and Structures, 5: 151–164.Google Scholar
  259. Richards PJ, Norris SE (2011). Appropriate boundary conditions for computational wind engineering models revisited. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 99: 257–266.Google Scholar
  260. Richardson LF (1908). A freehand graphic way of determining stream lines and equipotentials. Proceedings of the Physical Society of London, 21: 88–124.zbMATHGoogle Scholar
  261. Richardson LF (1922). Weather Prediction by Numerical Process. Cambridge, UK: The University Press.zbMATHGoogle Scholar
  262. Richardson LF (1926). Atmospheric diffusion shown on a distanceneighbour graph. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, 110: 709–737.Google Scholar
  263. Richardson LF (1929). A search for the law of atmospheric diffusion. Beiträge zur Physik der freien Atmosphäre, 15: 24–29.zbMATHGoogle Scholar
  264. Roache PJ, Ghia KN, White F (1986). Editorial policy statement on the control of numerical accuracy. Journal of Fluids Engineering, 108: 2.Google Scholar
  265. Roache PJ (1994). Perspective: A method for uniform reporting of grid refinement studies. Journal of Fluids Engineering, 116: 405–413.Google Scholar
  266. Roache PJ (1997). Quantification of uncertainty in computational fluid dynamics. Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, 29: 123–160.MathSciNetGoogle Scholar
  267. Robins AG, Castro IP (1977a). A wind tunnel investigation of plume dispersion in the vicinity of a surface mounted Cube. 1. The flow field. Atmospheric Environment, 11: 291–297.Google Scholar
  268. Robins AG, Castro IP (1977b). A wind tunnel investigation of plume dispersion in the vicinity of a surface mounted Cube. 2. The concentration field. Atmospheric Environment, 11: 299–311.Google Scholar
  269. Robson BJ, Hamilton DP, Webster IT, Chan T (2008). Ten steps applied to development and evaluation of process-based biogeochemical models of estuaries. Environmental Modelling & Software, 23: 369–384.Google Scholar
  270. Rodi W (1997). Comparison of LES and RANS calculations of the flow around bluff bodies. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 69–71: 55–75.Google Scholar
  271. Rossi R, Iaccarino G (2013). Numerical analysis and modeling of plume meandering in passive scalar dispersion downstream of a wall-mounted cube. International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow, 43: 137–148.Google Scholar
  272. Roy CJ (2005). Review of code and solution verification procedures for computational simulation. Journal of Computational Physics, 205: 131–156.zbMATHGoogle Scholar
  273. Roy CJ, Oberkampf WL (2010). A complete framework for verification, validation, and uncertainty quantification in scientific computing. In: Proceedings of the 48th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting, Orlando, FL, USA.Google Scholar
  274. Sakamoto Y, Matsuo Y (1980). Numerical predictions of threedimensional flow in a ventilated room. Applied Mathematical Modelling, 4: 67–72.zbMATHGoogle Scholar
  275. Salizzoni P, Soulhac L, Mejean P (2009). Street canyon ventilation and atmospheric turbulence. Atmospheric Environment, 43: 5056–5067.Google Scholar
  276. Sasaki R, Uematsu Y, Yamada M, Saeki H (1997). Application of infrared thermography and a knowledge-based system to the evaluation of the pedestrian-level wind environment around buildings. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 67–68: 873–883.Google Scholar
  277. Scaperdas A, Gilham S (2004). Thematic Area 4: Best practice advice for civil construction and HVAC. The QNET-CFD Network Newsletter, 2(4): 28–33.Google Scholar
  278. Schatzmann M, Lohmeyer A, Ortner G (1987). Flue gas discharge from cooling towers. Wind tunnel investigation of building downwash effects on ground-level concentrations. Atmospheric Environment, 21: 1713–1724.Google Scholar
  279. Schatzmann M, Rafailidis S, Pavageau M (1997). Some remarks on the validation of small-scale dispersion models with field and laboratory data. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 67–68: 885–893.Google Scholar
  280. Schatzmann M, Leitl B (2011). Issues with validation of urban flow and dispersion CFD models. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 99: 169–186.Google Scholar
  281. Selvam RP (1997). Computation of pressures on Texas Tech University building using large eddy simulation. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 67–68: 647–657.Google Scholar
  282. Shah KB, Ferziger JH (1997). A fluid mechanicians view of wind engineering: Large eddy simulation of flow past a cubic obstacle. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 67–68: 211–224.Google Scholar
  283. Shih TH, Liou WW, Shabbir A, Yang Z, Zhu J (1995). A new k-e eddy viscosity model for high Reynolds number turbulent flows. Computers & Fluids, 24: 227–238.zbMATHGoogle Scholar
  284. Simiu E, Scanlan RH (1986). Wind Effects on Structures. An introduction to Wind Engineering, 2nd edn. New York: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
  285. Smagorinsky J (1963). General circulation experiments with the primitive equations I. The basic experiment. Monthly Weather Review, 91(3): 99–164.Google Scholar
  286. Sommerfeld M, van Wachem B, Oliemans R (2008). Best practice guidelines for computational fluid dynamics of dispersed multiphase flows. ERFOCTAC (European Research Community on Flow, Turbulence and Combustion). Version 1.Google Scholar
  287. Song CCS, He J (1993). Computation of wind flow around a tall building and the large-scale vortex structure. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 46–47: 219–228.Google Scholar
  288. Sørensen DN, Nielsen PV (2003). Quality control of computational fluid dynamics in indoor environments. Indoor Air, 13: 2–17.Google Scholar
  289. Spalart P, Allmaras S (1992). A one-equation turbulence model for aerodynamic flows. In: Proceedings of the 30th Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit, Reno, NV, USA.Google Scholar
  290. Stathopoulos T (1984). Design and fabrication of a wind tunnel for building aerodynamics. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 16: 361–376.Google Scholar
  291. Stathopoulos T, Storms R (1986). Wind environmental conditions in passages between buildings. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 24: 19–31.Google Scholar
  292. Stathopoulos T, Zhou YS (1993). Numerical simulation of windinduced pressures on buildings of various geometries. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 46–47: 419–430.Google Scholar
  293. Stathopoulos T, Baskaran A (1990). Boundary treatment for the computation of three-dimensional turbulent conditions around a building. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 35: 177–200.Google Scholar
  294. Stathopoulos T, Baskaran A (1996). Computer simulation of wind environmental conditions around buildings. Engineering Structures, 18: 876–885.Google Scholar
  295. Stathopoulos T (1997). Computational Wind Engineering: Past achievements and future challenges. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 67–68: 509–532.Google Scholar
  296. Stathopoulos T (2002). The numerical wind tunnel for industrial aerodynamics: Real or virtual in the new millennium? Wind and Structures, 5: 193–208.Google Scholar
  297. Summers DM, Hanson T, Wilson CB (1986). Validation of a computer simulation of wind flow over a building model. Building and Environment, 21: 97–111.Google Scholar
  298. Surry D (1991). Pressure measurements on the Texas Tech building: Wind tunnel measurements and comparisons with full scale. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 38: 235–247.Google Scholar
  299. Takakura S, Suyama Y, Aoyama M (1993). Numerical simulation of flowfield around buildings in an urban area. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 46–47: 765–771.Google Scholar
  300. Tamura T, Kawai H, Kawamoto S, Nozawa K, Sakamoto S, Ohkuma T (1997). Numerical prediction of wind loading on buildings and structures—Activities of AIJ cooperative project on CFD. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 67–68: 671–685.Google Scholar
  301. Tamura T, Nozawa K, Kondo K (2008). AIJ guide for numerical prediction of wind loads on buildings. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 96: 1974–1984.Google Scholar
  302. Tapsoba M, Moureh J, Flick D (2007). Airflow patterns in a slotventilated enclosure partially loaded with empty slotted boxes. International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow, 28: 963–977.Google Scholar
  303. Thomas LP, Marino BM, Tovar R, Castillo JA (2011). Flow generated by a thermal plume in a cooled-ceiling system. Energy and Buildings, 43: 2727–2736.Google Scholar
  304. Tian ZF, Tu JY, Yeoh GH, Yuen RKK (2007). Numerical studies of indoor airflow and particle dispersion by large eddy simulation. Building and Environment, 42: 3483–3492.Google Scholar
  305. Tieleman HW, Reinhold TA, Marshall RD (1978). Wind tunnel simulation of atmospheric surface layer for the study of wind loads on low-rise buildings. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 3: 21–38.Google Scholar
  306. Timmons MB, Albright LD, Furry RB, Torrance KE (1980). Experimental and numerical study of air movement in slot ventilated enclosures. ASHRAE Transactions, 86(1): 221–240.Google Scholar
  307. To AP, Lam KM (1995). Evaluation of pedestrian-level wind environment around a row of tall buildings using a quartile-level wind speed descripter. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 54–55: 527–541.Google Scholar
  308. Toja-Silva F, Chen J, Hachinger S, Hase F (2017). CFD simulation of CO2 dispersion from urban thermal power plant: Analysis of turbulent Schmidt number and comparison with Gaussian plume model and measurements. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 169: 177–193.Google Scholar
  309. Tominaga Y, Murakami S, Mochida A (1997). CFD prediction of gaseous diffusion around a cubic model using a dynamic mixed SGS model based on composite grid technique. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 67–68: 827–841.Google Scholar
  310. Tominaga Y, Stathopoulos T (2007). Turbulent Schmidt numbers for CFD analysis with various types of flowfield. Atmospheric Environment, 41: 8091–8099.Google Scholar
  311. Tominaga Y, Mochida A, Yoshie R, Kataoka H, Nozu T, Yoshikawa M, Shirasawa T (2008a). AIJ guidelines for practical applications of CFD to pedestrian wind environment around buildings. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 96: 1749–1761.Google Scholar
  312. Tominaga Y, Mochida A, Murakami S, Sawaki S (2008b). Comparison of various revised k-e models and LES applied to flow around a high-rise building model with 1:1:2 shape placed within the surface boundary layer. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 96: 389–411.Google Scholar
  313. Tominaga Y, Stathopoulos T (2009). Numerical simulation of dispersion around an isolated cubic building: Comparison of various types of k-e models. Atmospheric Environment, 43: 3200–3210.Google Scholar
  314. Tominaga Y, Stathopoulos T (2010). Numerical simulation of dispersion around an isolated cubic building: Model evaluation of RANS and LES. Building and Environment, 45: 2231–2239.Google Scholar
  315. Tominaga Y, Stathopoulos T (2013). CFD simulation of near-field pollutant dispersion in the urban environment: A review of current modeling techniques. Atmospheric Environment, 79: 716–730.Google Scholar
  316. Tominaga Y (2015). Flow around a high-rise building using steady and unsteady RANS CFD: Effect of large-scale fluctuations on the velocity statistics. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 142: 93–103.Google Scholar
  317. Tominaga Y, Sato Y, Sadohara S (2015). CFD simulations of the effect of evaporative cooling from water bodies in a micro-scale urban environment: Validation and application studies. Sustainable Cities and Society, 19: 259–270.Google Scholar
  318. Tominaga Y, Blocken B (2015). Wind tunnel experiments on cross-ventilation flow of a generic building with contaminant dispersion in unsheltered and sheltered conditions. Building and Environment, 92: 452–461.Google Scholar
  319. Tominaga Y, Blocken B (2016). Wind tunnel analysis of flow and dispersion in cross-ventilated isolated buildings: Impact of opening positions. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 155: 74–88.Google Scholar
  320. Tominaga Y, Stathopoulos T (2016). Ten questions concerning modeling of near-field pollutant dispersion in the built environment. Building and Environment, 105: 390–402.Google Scholar
  321. Tominaga Y, Stathopoulos T (2017). Steady and unsteady RANS simulations of pollutant dispersion around isolated cubical buildings: Effect of large-scale fluctuations on the concentration field. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 165: 23–33.Google Scholar
  322. Toparlar Y, Blocken B, Vos P, van Heijst GJF, Janssen WD, van Hooff T, Montazeri H, Timmermans HJP (2015). CFD simulation and validation of urban microclimate: A case study for Bergpolder Zuid, Rotterdam. Building and Environment, 83: 79–90.Google Scholar
  323. Toparlar Y, Blocken B, Maiheu B, van Heijst GJF (2017). A review on the CFD analysis of urban microclimate. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 80: 1613–1640.Google Scholar
  324. Toparlar Y, Blocken B, Maiheu B, van Heijst GJF (2018). The effect of an urban park on the microclimate in its vicinity: A case study for Antwerp, Belgium. International Journal of Climatology, 38: e303–e322.Google Scholar
  325. Tsang CW, Kwok KCS, Hitchcock PA (2012). Wind tunnel study of pedestrian level wind environment around tall buildings: Effects of building dimensions, separation and podium. Building and Environment, 49: 167–181.Google Scholar
  326. Tucker PG, Mosquera A (2001). NAFEMS introduction to grid and mesh generation for CFD. NAFEMS CFD Working Group, R0079.Google Scholar
  327. Uematsu Y, Yamada M, Higashiyama H, Orimo T (1992). Effects of the corner shape of high-rise buildings on the pedestrian-level wind environment with consideration for mean and fluctuating wind speeds. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 44: 2289–2300.Google Scholar
  328. van Hooff T, Blocken B (2010a). Coupled urban wind flow and indoor natural ventilation modelling on a high-resolution grid: A case study for the Amsterdam ArenA stadium. Environmental Modelling & Software, 25: 51–65.Google Scholar
  329. van Hooff T, Blocken B (2010b). On the effect of wind direction and urban surroundings on natural ventilation of a large semienclosed stadium. Computers & Fluids, 39: 1146–1155.zbMATHGoogle Scholar
  330. van Hooff T, Blocken B, Defraeye T, Carmeliet J, van Heijst GJF (2012a). PIV measurements and analysis of transitional flow in a reduced-scale model: Ventilation by a free plane jet with Coanda effect. Building and Environment, 56: 301–313.Google Scholar
  331. van Hooff T, Blocken B, Defraeye T, Carmeliet J, van Heijst GJF (2012b). PIV measurements of a plane wall jet in a confined space at transitional slot Reynolds numbers. Experiments in Fluids, 53: 499–517.Google Scholar
  332. van Hooff T, Blocken B (2013). CFD evaluation of natural ventilation of indoor environments by the concentration decay method: CO2 gas dispersion from a semi-enclosed stadium. Building and Environment, 61: 1–17.Google Scholar
  333. van Hooff T, Blocken B, Tominaga Y (2017). On the accuracy of CFD simulations of cross-ventilation flows for a generic isolated building: comparison of RANS, LES and experiments. Building and Environment, 114: 148–165.Google Scholar
  334. Vasilic-Melling D (1977). Three dimensional turbulent flow past rectangular bluff bodies, PhD Thesis, Imperial College of Science and Technology, UK.Google Scholar
  335. Verkaik JW (2006). On wind and roughness over land. PhD Thesis, Wageningen University, the Netherlands.Google Scholar
  336. Visser GT, Cleijne JW (1994). Wind comfort predictions by wind tunnel tests: Comparison with full-scale data. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 52: 385–402.Google Scholar
  337. Wang M, Chen Q (2009). Assessment of various turbulence models for transitional flows in an enclosed environment. HVAC&R Research, 15: 1099–1119.Google Scholar
  338. Wang M, Lin CH, Chen Q (2012). Advanced turbulence models for predicting particle transport in enclosed environments. Building and Environment, 47: 40–49.Google Scholar
  339. Wang W, Xu Y, Ng E (2018a). Large-eddy simulations of pedestrianlevel ventilation for assessing a satellite-based approach to urban geometry generation. Graphical Models, 95: 29–41.Google Scholar
  340. Wang W, Xu Y, Ng E, Raasch S (2018b). Evaluation of satellitederived building height extraction by CFD simulations: A case study of neighborhood-scale ventilation in Hong Kong. Landscape and Urban Planning, 170: 90–102.Google Scholar
  341. Waters R (1986). Air movement studies. Clean Room Design Seminar, Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IMechE), London.Google Scholar
  342. Westbury PS, Miles SD, Stathopoulos T (2002). CFD application on the evaluation of pedestrian-level winds. In: Proceedings of Cost Action C14, Impact of Wind and Storm on City Life and Built Environment, Nantes, France.Google Scholar
  343. Whittle GE (1987). Numerical air flow modelling. BSRIA Technical Note TN 2/8, Bracknell, UK.Google Scholar
  344. Wilcox DC (2004). Turbulence Modelling for CFD, 2nd edn. La Cañada, CA, USA: DCW Industries.Google Scholar
  345. Wiren BG (1975). A wind tunnel study of wind velocities in passages between and through buildings, In: Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures, Heathrow, UK, pp. 465–475.Google Scholar
  346. Wright NG, Easom GJ, Hoxey RJ (2001). Development and validation of a non-linear k-e model for flow over a full-scale building. Wind and Structures, 4: 177–196.Google Scholar
  347. Wright NG, Hargreaves DM (2006). Unsteady CFD Simulations for natural ventilation. International Journal of Ventilation, 5: 13–20.Google Scholar
  348. Wu H, Stathopoulos T (1994). Further experiments on Irwin’s surface wind sensor. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 53: 441–452.Google Scholar
  349. Wu H, Stathopoulos T (1997). Application of infrared thermography for pedestrian wind evaluation. Journal of Engineering Mechanics, 123: 978–985.Google Scholar
  350. Wu W, Zhai J, Zhang G, Nielsen PV (2012). Evaluation of methods for determining air exchange rate in a naturally ventilated dairy cattle building with large openings using computational fluid dynamics (CFD). Atmospheric Environment, 63: 179–188.Google Scholar
  351. Yakhot V, Orszag SA (1986). Renormalization group analysis of turbulence, I. Basic theory. Journal of Scientific Computing, 1: 3–51.MathSciNetzbMATHGoogle Scholar
  352. Yamada T, Meroney RN (1972). Numerical and wind tunnel simulation of airflow over an obstacle. In: Proceedings of National Conference on Atmospheric Waves, Salt Lake City, USA.Google Scholar
  353. Yang Y, Gu M, Chen S, Jin X (2009). New inflow boundary conditions for modelling the neutral equilibrium atmospheric boundary layer in computational wind engineering. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 97: 88–95.Google Scholar
  354. Yang AS, Juan YH, Wen CY, Chang CJ (2017). Numerical simulation of cooling effect of vegetation enhancement in a subtropical urban park. Applied Energy, 192: 178–200.Google Scholar
  355. Yasa E (2016). Computational evaluation of building physics—The effect of building form and settled area, microclimate on pedestrian level comfort around buildings. Building Simulation, 9: 489–499.Google Scholar
  356. Yim SHL, Fung JCH, Lau AKH, Kot SC (2009). Air ventilation impacts of the “wall effect” resulting from the alignment of high-rise buildings. Atmospheric Environment, 43: 4982–4994.Google Scholar
  357. Yoshie R, Mochida A, Tominaga Y, Kataoka H, Harimoto K, Nozu T, Shirasawa T (2007). Cooperative project for CFD prediction of pedestrian wind environment in the Architectural Institute of Japan. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 95: 1551–1578.Google Scholar
  358. Yu H, Liao C-M, Liang H-M, Chiang K-C (2007). Scale model study of airflow performance in a ceiling slot-ventilated enclosure: Non-isothermal condition. Building and Environment, 42: 1142–1150.Google Scholar
  359. Yuan C, Ng E (2014). Practical application of CFD on environmentally sensitive architectural design at high density cities: A case study in Hong Kong. Urban Climate, 8: 57–77.Google Scholar
  360. Zhai Z, Zhang Z, Zhang W, Chen Q (2007). Evaluation of various turbulence models in predicting airflow and turbulence in enclosed environments by CFD: part-1: Summary of prevalent turbulence models. HVAC&R Research, 13: 853–870.Google Scholar
  361. Zhang Z, Zhang W, Zhai Z, Chen Q (2007). Evaluation of various turbulence models in predicting airflow and turbulence in enclosed environments by CFD: part-2: Comparison with experimental data from literature. HVAC&R Research, 13: 871–886.Google Scholar
  362. Zhang W, Chen Q (2000a). Large eddy simulation of indoor airflow with a filtered dynamic subgrid scale model. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 43: 3219–3231.zbMATHGoogle Scholar
  363. Zhang W, Chen Q (2000b). Large eddy simulation of natural and mixed convection airflow indoors with two simple filtered dynamic subgrid scale models. Numerical Heat Transfer, Part A: Applications, 37: 447–463.Google Scholar

Copyright information

© The Author(s) 2018

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 1.Department of the Built EnvironmentEindhoven University of TechnologyEindhoventhe Netherlands
  2. 2.Department of Civil EngineeringKU LeuvenLeuvenBelgium

Personalised recommendations