1 Introduction

According to Panofsky (1962), a “synthetic intuition” exists, which creates a theoretical and subjective model to classify how “general and essential tendencies of the human mind are expressed by specific themes and concepts”. The interpretation and iconological description are intricate and complicated (Winget 2009). However, also, through the images of plants and their figurative elements, like flowers, leaves, and fruits in artifacts and paintings, it is possible to comprehend the origin of certain “archetypes”, intended as recurrent motifs associated with common unconscious ideas that are connected to specific cultures and geographical areas and which are still present nowadays (Lévi‐Strauss 1970). Then despite the relevance of some different interpretations (Sauron 1984; Förtsch 1989; Castriota 1995), it can be surprising that floristic elements represented in ancient paintings and archeological remains have often been considered only as decorative motifs, having the mere function of making beauty.

This modern interpretation of images and artistic representations inspired by nature contains a reductive view since, for the ancient cultures, all natural phenomena were associated with the expression and will of deities, having results in human life as their aids or punishment (Baumann 1993; 2000; Amigues 2002; Vandi 2002; Caneva et al. 2005; Hart 2005; Kandeler 2006; Kandeler and Ulrich 2009a, b, c, d, e, f, g; Caneva 2010). In ancient Egypt, for example, the flooding of the Nile was essential for the life of the entire population. One of the most important duties of the Egyptian pharaohs, believed to have divine powers, was to ensure that the flood occurred every year by praying to the Gods. The absence of the Nile flood for 1 year could have meant famine for the following year and, sometimes, for successive ones (Bell 1975). Furthermore, in ancient times, food, medicine, furnishing, dresses, and any tools useful for human needs were obtained from natural resources, and their representation had a strong symbolic and apotropaic value. From prehistoric times, the reason for painting animals and anthropomorphic figures in the caves of Lascaux and Altamira is commonly interpreted as a propitiatory rite for hunting (Caneva et al. 2005).

Living elements, such as plants and animals, together with the unanimated forces of nature, like earth, water, air, and fires, became the basic ideological element in most cultures all over the world (Frazer 1890; Chevalier and Gheerbrant 1974; Baumann 1993; Day 2013), and have remained relevant also in the modern age (Kandeler and Ulrich 2009a, b, c, d, e, f, g; Caneva and Carpaneto 2011; Signorini et al. 2011, 2017; Caneva et al. 2020). Consequently, deities, characterized by immortality and special powers, were often represented by natural elements. Such artistic representations had a powerful effect on human beings and were used for communication (Hölscher 1987; Zanker 1989) in a context where most people were illiterate but experts in the power of nature (Caneva 2010; Kumbaric et al. 2013; Caneva et al. 2014).

Plants were traded and exchanged between different countries or even continents, and their ancient artistic representations allow us to obtain indirect information on the relationships between ancient populations by retracing the history of the plants themselves (Caneva et al. 2005; Sadori et al. 2009; Franchi and Pacini 2017; Caneva 2022). Due to their great importance, many plants were associated with specific meanings, deities, sacred rituals, and games (Rhizopoulou 2004). In Greek mythology, plants of the Dionysian sphere, such as the grapes (Vitis vinifera L.) (Savo et al. 2016) and ivy (Hedera helix L.) (Motti et al. 2022) had a relevant relevance. Famous is the tale of Athena, who won the competition against Poseidon by gifting the citizens of the city, subsequently called Athene, with an olive tree (Olea europaea L.) that symbolized rebirth, victory, and peace (Luyster 1965). The meaning of the olive tree has not changed over the centuries, and together with the dove, the olive tree is associated with the symbols of hope and rebirth in the Book of Genesis, which recurs in the episode of Noah’s Ark and the great Flood, and the Gospels, where is mentioned during the Palm Sunday, before Easter that represents the triumphal enters of Jesus Christ into Jerusalem (Grego 2022).

In the same way, many other plants had a strong symbolic value. Some of them were mainly used as food, such as grains and cereals (several species of Hordeum, Triticum, Sorghum, Panicum, etc.), which became attributes of the deities Demeter and Ceres (Tsoukala 2007), and as dates (Phoenix dactylifera L.), which became the classical symbol of the “arbor vitae” (Murphy and Murphy 2002; Rivera et al. 2019). Other sacred plants were used as special beverages or were used as medicine, such as the famous powerful “silphion” (an extinct Ferula) and the “moly herb” (probably an Allium) (Amigues 2002). Among the plants with strong symbolic meaning, some were used for mystical celebrations, such as the laurel (Laurus nobilis L.), sacred to Apollo (Albani Rocchetti et al. 2021).

Among the cultural and economic plants, one of the most important and represented plants in the Middle East and European countries is Linum usitatissimum L. or the common flax. Its cultivation has been constant over the millennia and across different cultures due to its dual use as a food resource, thanks to its seeds and oil, and to extract fibers to produce fabrics. The domestication of this plant dates back to the ancient Mesopotamians in the Fertile Crescent, although cultivation in large crops was only developed by the Egyptians later (Van Zeist and Bakker-Heeres 1975; Hopf 2008). In the European continent, the first traces of flax seeds and shives were found in Italy, Spain, and Central Europe in archeological sites dated between 6000 and 5000 years ago, but the cultivation of flax on a large scale spread to the European continent thanks to the commercial exchanges of Phoenicians and Romans (Melelli et al. 2022; Desta 2019; Vaisey-Genser and Morris 2003) until reaching ancient populations of the North located in England, Denmark, and ancient Scandinavian countries (Ejstrud 2011; Orendi 2020). The use of flax has survived to the present day, and because of its rich history through so many different cultures, it was also charged with strong allegory and depicted in paintings and illustrations for millennia (Quillien 2014, 2016). However, although, nowadays, flax fibers are mainly produced in Western Europe and widely used in high-quality manufacturing or biocomposite materials for automotive or sports sectors (Pil et al. 2015), the strong symbolic value behind the flax plant has been forgotten by modern occidental society. That is not the case for cereals, such as wheat, which in the past were often depicted together with flax and with the same meaning of fertility, abundance, and life but also maintained in modern times. The universal image of wheat as a symbol of abundance is also clearly visible in the choice of the logo representing the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (Kronstad 1997).

Considering Roman archeology, the strong symbolic values of plants illustrated in wall paintings and artifacts were proved by several contributions to artworks located in the Pompeian (Jashemski et al. 2002; Ciarallo 2006; Motti et al. 2022) and Roman areas (Caneva and Bohuny 2003; Caneva 2010, 2022; Caneva et al. 2014, 2019; Kumbaric and Caneva 2014). However, one of the most iconic paintings in Pompeii, the so-called ‘Flora in Ariadne’s painting’, also sometimes called ‘the Spring’ (Fig. 1) in Stabiae complex, and now in the National Archaeological Museum (MANN) in Naples (inv. no. 8834), has not yet been deciphered. The figure of the young woman had different interpretations, even if Persephone is the prevailing one (Allroggen-Bedel 1977), and the plant depicted is still unknown.

Fig. 1
figure 1

The Flora’s image in the Ariadne House in the ancient Stabiae complex (A) currently displayed at the MANN Museum (Naples) together with the other three wall paintings depicting female subjects from the same villa (B) (photo by G. Caneva)

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In this paper, we will discuss the hypothesis of identifying the plant illustrated as flax. Considering the importance of explaining the meaning of the artistic representations, overall, when they are widely shared and used as touristic icons, this study aims to analyze: (i) the plant elements selected for the image of Flora in the Ariadne House, (ii) the probable meaning of such choice, as related to the previous traditions, and (iii) to give a proposal on the communicative value of the image in the whole.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 The site and the images’ interpretation

The archeological complex of the Ariadne House (Villa Arianna) covers a wide area (about 17.000 m2) on the Pianoro di Varano, in the Pompeian area and the close Sorrentine peninsula, where several “otium houses” were located (Camardo 2001, 2021; Coralini 2021). Like the other complexes of the archeological site in Stabiae, Ariadne’s house was a secondary residence for families of the Roman aristocracy. Following the stylistic features of the paintings (the third style), it was dated to the age of Claudius and Nero (50 and 60 AD) (Schefold 1952; Allroggen-Bedel 1977; Hoti 1994). The house takes its name from a large wall painting in a wide triclinium (dining room), depicting the scene of Dionysus meeting the sleeping Ariadne. In the wide complex (Fig. 2a, red area), other famous paintings were discovered in private spaces (cubicula), such as the ‘Flora’ painting. The house was first excavated, during 1757–1778, by Weber and La Vega in different surveys until the more recent ones of D’Orsi, which started in 1950. During the first excavations, the discovered pictures were removed from the walls and exhibited as framed pictures in the museum in Portici. Indeed, the old excavations aimed to produce ‘many beautiful pictures” for the Borbone king’s gallery, not to document the ancient archeology of the site. Therefore, the occurred excavation methodology had several criticisms for the lack of documentation, which could help reconstruct the ancient structures and their uses (Gardelli 2018).

Fig. 2
figure 2

The Ariadne House in the ancient Stabiae complex (Pompeian area, Italy); a planimetry of a part of the archeological complex of the Ariadne’s House. Figure adapted from the original image of the Archeological Park of Pompeii. (http://pompeiisites.org/wpcontent/uploads/mappa_villa_arianna-3.pdf); b the present urbanization and the location of the archeological site (red circle) (source: google earth)

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Among the different pictorial representations found in the house, special attention arises from the four small female figures (Figs. 1 and 3D) (about 38 cm high and 32 cm), and especially the so-called “Flora” found in the room w26 (Fig. 2a). Unfortunately, many other wall paintings have been lost. Such figures are two on a green and two on a blue background and considering certain details they appear as counterparts (Hoti 1994). Indeed, the area from which such pictures derive lies still underground and therefore their ‘material context’ and their original position still need to be precisely interpreted. However, these four pictures can be paired thanks to similar elements: the homogeneous color of the background (two on blue and two on green); to the dates of discovery (that also has a binary association) and to the clothes worn by the four women illustrated (those on green backgrounds are roughly clothed, with garments fluttering in the wind; the two figures on a blue background stand quietly, they appear festively and expensively dressed and adorned) (Allroggen-Bedel 1977). In the two pictures with blue background (Fig. 3A, B), the woman with the sword is interpreted as Medea (Fig. 3A) (recognizable by the resemblance to other portraits and not by the sword as his attribute) and the woman with a bow and arrow is interpreted as Penelope (Fig. 3B) who is holding Odysseus’s weapons in her hands; this latter is sometimes referred to Diana (Allroggen-Bedel 2017). In the two pictures with a green background, the woman holding a swan in her arm is undisputedly considered as Leda (Fig. 3C), who was seduced by Zeus who approached her in the form of a swan; the second woman is the so-called Flora (Fig. 3D) (sometimes also referred to as Spring and Hora), and in our paper, we will discuss about an alternative interpretation as Persephone, in agreement with Hoti (1994) and Allroggen-Bedel (2017). The past identification of the woman depicted as Europa abducted by Zeus in the form of a bull (Schefold 1952; Robertson 1988) has been abandoned. In fact, the author chose to illustrate the swan in “Leda” to give a clear idea of the presence of Zeus and if he had wanted to make a clear reference to the mythological story of Europa, he would probably also have illustrated a bull (Hoti 1994; Allroggen-Bedel 2017).

Fig. 3
figure 3

The four feminine images (respectively Medea (A) and Penelope (B) on the top, and Leda (C) and Flora (D), interpreted as Persephone, on the bottom) collected during the excavations of the eighteenth century from the walls of the Ariadne House (photo: Archivio dell’Arte, Luciano Pedicini)

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In such final interpretations, those painted on a blue ground represent regal unhappy wives (Medea and Penelope), whereas those painted on a green wall are two mistresses of a God (Leda and Persephone), both with garments moving agitatedly (Allroggen-Bedel 2017). All pictures are considered copies from Greek original models, and the original of “Flora Image” was dated to a late Hellenistic time (330 BC) (Hoti 1994).

2.1.1 The identification of the plant in the “Flora” image

Following the methodology previously adopted (Caneva et al. 2005; Caneva 2010; Kumbaric and Caneva 2014), we have analyzed the herbaceous plant represented on the right side of “Flora” considering several morphological data, such as structural elements (size, plant architecture, habitus, i.e., herbaceous, arboreous or climbing); the shapes of leaves (e.g., oval, truncate, elliptical, lanceolate, and linear) and their general structure (simple or composed, their edges and margins, their arrangements on the stem), the flowers morphology (number of petals, color, symmetry), and eventual further diagnostic elements (Pignatti 2019). These morphological data were used for the floristic taxonomic evaluation, and the image was compared with the hypothesized taxa, using botanic atlases of reference for Italian and Mediterranean flora (Bonnier 1911–1933; Pignatti 2019; http://dryades.units.it/floritaly/, http://www.theplantlist.org), and also with ancient botanic representation from the Roman context (Jashemski et al. 2002; Kumbaric and Caneva 2014) and Middle East (Rottoli and Pessina 2007; Jones 2010).

2.1.2 The economic and cultural values of the represented plant and its iconographic meaning

To strengthen the interpretation of the plant, we have carried out further analysis of the aspects that could have been a reason for its selection. Considering the species that emerged from the iconographic analysis, deepening its economic and cultural values was deemed appropriate. Therefore, we checked different sources on the economy of the ancient society of the near East, especially in Egyptian and Greco-Roman contexts, which could be helpful for such an aim (Hopf 2008; Harlow and Nosch 2014). For the plant's cultural and symbolic value, we also considered different representations and comments on the species in the ancient cultures ranging from the Sumerian and Pharaonic contexts to the Roman ones (Mc Corriston 1997; Tsoukala 2007).

2.1.3 A proposal for the communicative value of the image in the whole

The picture was also analyzed to better interpret the image as a whole, considering some relevant elements linked to the selection. In particular, we considered the following:

  • The subject (the main elements composing the image).

  • The colors (the background of the picture, the girl’s dress, the color of the plant and its flowers).

  • The position of the woman and her action.

Such elements were considered based on documentation found in classical Roman literature, such as, in particular, the Naturalis Historia by Pliny the Elder, the Aeneid by Virgil, De Architettura by Vitruvius, and the Metamorphoses by Ovid. Further modern literature on the meaning of plant representation in Roman archeology (Amigues 2002; Caneva 2010; Kumbaric and Caneva 2014) and symbolic dictionary (Chevalier and Gheerbrant 1974; Baumann 1993) were also considered.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 The identification of the plant

In the “Flora” painting, a tall and slender herbaceous plant is represented with several flowered branches constituted by small yellow and white flowers, having a number of petals between three and five (Figs. 1 and 4A and B). All along the stem, small lanceolate leaves are alternated until reaching the delicate flowers on the top. As suggested in the MANN museum, interpreting the plant as an Asphodelus species is incompatible with such plants’ long linear leaves, inflorescences of different shapes, and smaller sizes. Following several diagnostic characteristics, we propose the identification of the plant as the flax used to extract fibers (Linum usitatissimum L., a bast plant of the family Linaceae). It should also be pointed out that this species shows a certain morphological difference from linseed, which defines the flax plants used to extract oil and seeds. Such differences in varieties are ancient, and traces of flax species used for textiles or oil were found back to 5000 years ago (Herbig and Maier 2011). In particular, the characteristics that guided the identification arise from the combination of the below-listed morphological elements:

  • The herbaceous habitus (no woody structures are detectable) and the size of the plant. Indeed, in the painting, the size seems a bit higher than expected for flax (using for comparison the girl's size, even if commonly in the ancient iconography, it is represented with very tall size). A great height characterizes both flax and linseed (between 80 and 120 cm for flax and between 60 and 80 cm for linseed (Salmon-Minotte and Franck 2005), and the diameter of the stem is around 2–3 mm). These specific dimensions give flax a unique morphology among herbaceous plants with an extraordinary slenderness and aspect ratio. Despite this, the mature flax plant can resist wind or rainfall and maintain the vertical position thanks to the great mechanical performances of its supporting tissues and, above all, the phloemian long fibers (Goudenhooft et al. 2019).

  • The linear shape of the leaves and their disposition, which appear simple, and alternately disposed along the stem. Note that the stem of the flax has small 3-nerved linear-lanceolate leaves that alternate along it until it reaches the branches with flowers and capsules when the plant matures (Esau 1953). At full maturity, however, the leaves become dry by leaving the stem empty and with a warm yellow–brown color.

  • The branches arrangement, which is compatible with the species. Notably, few differences can be observed between flax and linseed, such as the number of branches and seeds produced that is higher in linseed because of the artificial selection that accentuated these features. Oleaginous flax exhibits more ramifications than textile flax, mainly because of differences in the seeding density; a low seeding rate increases the ramifications (even for textile varieties) (Gubbels and Kenaschuk 1989).

  • The flower morphology. Even if flowers are depicted with harsh elements, which cannot be very useful for a precise definition, the size, the number of petals, and color can be compatible. Indeed, flax flowers can vary in color (often blue for current varieties, but also white) and in shape (generally five petals, rarely four), depending on the subspecies and variety (Salmon-Minotte and Franck 2005). The number of petals is not detectable here, but a number of three and four petals is unusual for flax. We need to consider that, as the girl's head and torso are rotated, suggesting not only movement but also the depth of the plane, the flowers may have been shown in profile rather than in frontal position with all the petals visible. Moreover, the choice of yellow and pale blue/white flowers can also indicate the artist's intention of illustrating two different flax species, such as tryginum and usitatissimum.

Fig. 4
figure 4

A, B Details of flowers in the Flora paintings in the MANN Museum, Naples (photo by G. Caneva); C images of wild flax (modified after Miller et al. 2016), D and from http://dryades.units.it/floritaly/ photo by A. Moro

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It should be mentioned that the progenitor of the common flax is the wild flax (also called pale flax or Linum angustifolium Huds.). This last commonly has light or pale blue flowers, while the cultivated ones have mainly blue flowers and rarely pink or red–violet ones (Diederichsen and Hammer 1995). The other wild species possibly represented in the illustration of “Flora” is the Linum trigynum L., also called Linum gallicum L., which is characterized by small yellow flowers and is commonly present in France and Italy. That is particularly important because, historically, although in Italy, traces of the use of flax were found in Northern Italy dated the Late Neolithic period (Rottoli and Pessina 2007). Lately, Romans did not have the adapted soils to grow a significant quantity of flax to satisfy the demand, and they mainly bought linen and fibers from Egypt and Spain (Pliny the Elder, Nat. Hist., book XIX). After taking control of Gaul, they organized the new colonies to cultivate flax and increase self-production (Raheel 2013).

3.2 An overview of the economic and cultural values of the flax and the supposed meaning of its representation

3.2.1 The crop and its economic value for fibers and sailing

After the first cultivation in Mesopotamia, the cultivation of flax spread in Egypt, where it became the most used raw material for textile production in the everyday life of ancient Egyptians. Furthermore, before cotton or synthetic fibers were developed, flax was largely used for sailing applications because of its remarkable mechanical properties for other plant fibers (Black and Samuel 1991). Flax was also recurrent not only in the representation of tombs, which document the economic and symbolic values of the plant, as later described but also in sailings representation. The comparison between the representation from the Aegean area (Fig. 5A–E) and ancient Mesopotamia (f) shows a clear similarity among them (Ulanowska 2022). Representing flax in the sails may have been a way to give importance to the plant that allowed navigation and the expansion of trade among the populations of the Mediterranean. Although the height of the plant cannot help us (except in f where the plants are represented as tall as the human figures), the three branches plus the circular elements on top and the small lanceolate leaves, which are described alternated in Fig. 5A and B, can suggest the plant as flax. The presence of capsules can give the idea of the plant's maturity, and the leaves also mean that the plant is in the growing stage between the seed formation season and full maturity when the capsules begin to turn brown. The stem gradually loses its leaves (Goudenhooft et al. 2019). The maturity of the flax plant also corresponds to the right time to harvest it and extract the fibers.

Fig. 5
figure 5

A–E Flax’ motif on Aegean seals. CMS IV 135b); CMS X 312c; CMS II,2 259CHIC 038–010–031; CMS III 186b; CMS III 237a. F Seal from Susa, Mesopotamia (Breniquet 2008), G–H Flax in the Warka vase (modified after Miller et al. 2016)

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Flax is an annual plant that can be cultivated twice a year, sowing the crop in March or November, depending on the varieties and temperatures at certain latitudes. According to the cumulated temperatures, flax and linseed plants reach maturity very early, approximately 100 days after seeding. Flax growing and cultivation is perfectly adapted to a tempered or oceanic climate, and the leading world production is located in Western Europe and especially in Belgium, Netherlands, and France. The French Normandy and Hauts-de-France regions represent approximately 75% of the world's textile flax fiber production; in Western Europe, flax plants are cultivated between the end of March and July (AAVV 2022).

In ancient Mesopotamia, flax was used as a winter crop. In contrast to barley and sesame, which were grown only in large crops, flax was grown in both crops and, more often, in well-watered small orchards and gardens for personal family use (Bedigian and Harlan 1986; Miller et al. 2016). On the contrary, ancient Egyptians used to cultivate large crops in mid-November following the Nile floods. Even nowadays, in this country, flax producers continue to sow flax in the Nile estuary during this time of the year, while harvesting occurs in March–April. On the other hand, in the past, in Europe, flax was sown mainly in Spring, around March, and the harvesting process took place in July. Nowadays, in Europe, some flax varieties, called winter varieties, can be sown in winter as well, although they are mainly cultivated for seeds and not fibers (Arslanoglu et al. 2022). Currently, there is a renewed interest in these varieties due to climate changes and, in particular, summers that are too hot and too dry, which cause troubles in the growth and retting of the plants (Arslanoglu et al. 2022).

3.2.2 The symbolic association with the fertility, the feminine, and the underworld

Flax needs significant rainfall (around 250 mm during the growing period, i.e., from the end of March to the end of June in Europe) or well-irrigated soils (Goudenhooft et al. 2019). This particular need seems to have influenced the symbolism attributed to this plant which became synonymous with fertility in several cultures. It was associated with the goddess Inanna, a goddess linked with the underworld, war, and death but also to fertility and love (Collins 1994).

The flax motif was adopted in early Mesopotamia. It occurs in the imagery of the Middle and Late Uruk period (fifth and early fourth millennia), found in earlier Late Chalcolithic glyptic traditions. In particular, in the Warka Vase, a famous alabaster vase of approximately 96 cm in height, and in Warka Mace, plants having the shape of a trident are represented (Fig. 5 G, H), and researchers agree on its interpretation as flax (Miller et al. 2016). These plants are also characterized by small lanceolate leaves all along the stem until to reach the schematized flowers or capsules represented as filled circles. For the previously underlined symbolic value, in the Warka Vase, flax plants alternate with another plant that could be associated with wheat/barley or palm plants; in both cases, other strong symbols of fertility draw a motif (Miller et al. 2016).

Another critical point is that the textile production and all the processes linked to the fiber extraction were made on textile farms where children and women who often were prisoners of war worked (Mc Corriston 1997). However, in Babylonia, not only women but also men were responsible for textile production. Written sources mainly refer to textile workers as men rather than women, especially for high-quality fabrics. On the other hand, some written resources describe the work of female slaves in textile production for domestic use in private homes (Quillien 2016).

In Egypt, the cultivation and harvesting of flax involved both women and men (see Fig. 6), probably because of the laborious and time-consuming process. On the other hand, the extraction process, as illustrated in the tomb of Dagi TT103 at Thebes (Vogelsang-Eastwood 2000), and the weaving process, as suggested by the small wooden figurines (JE 46723) found in the tomb of Meketre (11th dynasty c 2134 1991 BC. Deir El Bahri), was mostly a women duty. That linked the flax plant and its processing to the female sphere again; flax products such as bridal sheets are literary “topos” connected to femininity. The so-called Egyptian “harim” were independent estates for women, wives, and concubines linked to the Egyptian royal family. Although little information survived about life in these particular estates, researchers support that one of the duties of these women was to produce textiles to cover, at least in part, their subsistence costs (Robins 1993).

Fig. 6
figure 6

Flax and wheat Egypt Deir el-Medina, tomb of Sennedjem, Ramesside Period (13th to eleventh centuries BC) (images from © The Oxford encyclopedia of ancient Egypt and © Gerd Eichmann 1982)

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In Fig. 6, the wall painting in the tomb of Sennedjem (TT1) illustrates the deceased and his wife's intent to pull out a flax crop. Flax plants are regularly aligned in the field and are depicted with a long green line and a single yellow ovoid element on top. This manner of schematizing flax is even more simplistic than that of the Warka Vase. No leaves are present in the stem, which can indicate the plant's full maturity, also suggested by the yellow element on top representing the browning of the capsules according to the right time of harvesting. Another essential characteristic is that the flax plants illustrated seem extremely tall compared to the two human figures, underlining the remarkable slenderness of the plant again.

In Fig. 7, representing the Petosiris Tomb, it is possible to see another representation of the same harvesting time in Egypt. This tomb is more recent (IV Century BC), and the influence of the Romans in Egypt's culture and art is evident. The human figures are less stylized, wearing clothes with plies that suggest depth. Flax is always represented with a long stem, but it also has small leaves in this case. Here, the typical three branches are re-introduced as in ancient Mesopotamia, while the flax plants already pulled out and laid down horizontally are represented with only one capsule. Once again, in the same wall painting, flax and barley/wheat harvesting times are represented in separate scenes but one next to the other, highlighting the primary importance of both these plants in the Egyptian's daily life.

Fig. 7
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The decoration of the Pronaos of Petosiris’ tomb: themes, scenes, styles, and techniques"—sales harvest of barley or wheat (top) and flax (bottom) fourth century BC (Sales 2016)

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Curiously, flax, with the double meaning of fertility and death that it is possible to find in the Uruk culture, seems to have been assimilated by the ancient Egyptians. An example is Sakhmet, the ancient Egyptian lioness goddess who was defined both “the lady of life” because she was considered able to give or prevent pestilences and the “lady of bright red linen” about her warlike and bloodthirsty nature (Hart 2005). It is possible to find another example in the meaning of colors. The fertile soil deposited during the floods of the Nile was black. This color was also important for the ancient Egyptians because of the bitumen and resins used for embalming, which subsequently led to the blackening of the mummified body. In addition, it was believed that the Nile River had originated from the Underworld, contrarily to rainfalls referred to as “the Nile in the sky” that for Egyptians was provided by the God Aten.

For this reason, essential Gods like Osiris, who represented the afterlife's king, were also associated with agriculture and grains as a natural link (Hart 2005). The monarch, the manifestation of Horus during his life, became Osiris after his death as a new king in the afterlife. Flax, whose grains were removed (rippling) and whose fibers were extracted after letting the flax plants in water for the retting process, became an apparent reference to the fate of God Osiris, that was assassinated (in some myths, he drowned and in others, he was dismembered), as the ancient Egyptian word for flax (mhy) and the past participle intended as “the drowned” (mhy) are the same (Eisler 1950). It is not surprising that in some cases, the pantheon of ancient Egyptians had some points in common with the Sumerians, Greeks, and Romans, in turn, embraced and readapted part of the Egyptian pantheon and symbolism to their cults.

An example of this integration of fertility and the underworld can be seen with the Demeter cult among Greeks and Ceres among Romans. Goddess of the earth and agriculture but also the underworld goddess because sowing means burying dried seeds in the ground to grow the plant successfully. Ancient populations saw this act as the analogy to burying the dead to give them an afterlife (Burton 2011). However, among the Romans and Greeks, there was also the God Hades, who was associated with both the underworld and fertility. Hades is known in mythology as the brother of Zeus, who rules the underworld, and an example of his duality can be seen in the Pinax of Persephone and Hades at Locri, Italy. The couple is illustrated sitting on thrones and having flowers, roosters, and wheat in their hands to highlight the connection with wealth, earth, and harvest. In early Greece as well, women were associated with flax processing, particularly in the spinning process (Burke 2016).

3.3 A proposal on the communicative value of the image as a whole

Matching the interpreted iconographic values of the selected plant with other elements of the context, we can obtain a more general view of the scene. According to the most accurate iconological study of such paintings (Allroggen-Bedel 2017), this interpretation seems also to be in harmony with the other wall paintings of the triclinium in villa Ariadne. Here is recurrent the theme of unhappy love, such as the scene of Hypnos that shows the sleeping Ariadne to Dionysus after that Theseus abandoned her at Naxos (or the Hippolytus and Phaedra scene). The dream and the awakening of Ariadne represent essential episodes in Dionysian art and literature, and the fact that sleeping is equated with death and awakening with resurrection is common (de la Fuente 2021).

More specifically, in the Flora painting, a young girl is represented: (a) turning her back to the observer, on a (b) green background and showing (c) a fluttering yellow dress covering a white tunic. She is depicted as (d) holding a cornucopia of flowers with her left hand while (e) picking a flax flower with her right hand.

3.3.1 The turning position of the girl

The position of the girl, who is turning away from the observer and with the features of her face and her beauty unrevealed, suggests that her action is nearing its conclusion without giving a chance to discover her. That supports the hypothesis that the artist wanted to represent a melancholic scene of Persephone before the rap rather than a delightful one that could be more adapted to the representation of “Flora” (Allroggen-Bedel 2017).

3.3.2 The green background

We also observe that the green ground, which is common with “Leda” images, suggests the color of a meadow, and according again to Allroggen-Bedel (2017), this choice creates a more natural and human plane with respect to the blue background of “Medea” and “Penelope” images, which suggests a celestial plane, creating a “divine” atmosphere for these two regal women.

3.3.3 The fluttering yellow dress

Contrary to the two regal women, illustrated in a statuesque motionless pose and adorned with rich fabrics, which contribute to creating more divine and immortalized characters (Allroggen-Bedel 2017), the fluttering and simpler garments create a human atmosphere. Indeed, the yellow tunic of the young woman seems to allude to a wedding representation, and it marks the stage of life from adolescence to maturity. Indeed, the yellow color of garments in a ritual context has been shown to have strong associations with Artemis Brauronia, the goddess who presides over the liminal coming-of-age rituals for young Athenian girls in transition to a mature stage (Martin 2022). In fact, in the rites of passage intended to mark the maturation of young Athenian girls from childhood to adulthood, they wore a special garment dyed with saffron known as the krokotos. The bright yellow of saffron-dyed cloth permeated the experience of the rituals, as well as broader connotations of femininity and womanhood.

3.3.4 The cornucopia with flowers

The cornucopia with flowers is undoubtedly a symbol of fertility. It may allude to the fecundity of the woman, whose first duty as a wife after marriage was to have children, but also as a reference to the harvest recalling the earth since flax was used for oil and seeds. Furthermore, in fact, Hades is often associated with a cornucopia (Burton 2011; Borumand 2018). An example is the vase with red attic figures (Catalog No. Athens 16,346; Beazley Archive No. 214719) at the National Archaeological Museum, Athens and dated Classical period, attributed to the Orestes Painter. The vase description reports that the scene depicts Hades next to Persephone while fertilizing the earth thanks to a cornucopia. The cornucopia with fruits is a further topos used to describe the reached prosperity.

3.3.5 The picking flowers of flax

The act of the girl picking the flowers at the top can evoke all the fragility of beauty and wealth symbolized by the flax plant. The choice to depict the flax plant can be interpreted considering that among the Egyptians, flax had a strong ambivalent symbolism, linked both to fertility and to the underworld (Collins 1994), which among Romans and Greeks, we can find in the figures of the goddess Demeter and Ceres, respectively (Chevalier and Gheerbrant 1974). It is noticeable that the myth of Persephone and Hades was used to explain the seasons and the death or flowering of plants and flowers linked to the anger (autumn and winter) or happiness (spring and summer) of Demeter cyclically separated and reunited with her daughter Persephone (Chevalier and Gheerbrant 1974). In the “Flora” painting, the plant is not fully mature but is in the reproductive stage. That can be an analogy with the girl's young age, especially if we consider that flax was associated with the “feminine” sphere. The association with the myth of Persephone explains the usual erroneous interpretation of the plant of an Asphodelus without an analysis of the plant representation. However, through the present work, we can observe how even the choice of flax contains a strong suggestion and symbolic reference.

Finally, why do we no longer recognize the drama and melancholy of the representation? Why do we prefer to call the girl Flora instead of Persephone? Why do not we give more importance to the colors, actions, and plants illustrated, even if they are relevant to the scene? For the first question, we can note that—as for all the four Stabian women—the scene represents “an even earlier moment: the drama of the portrayal results from the viewers’ knowledge, they know the iconographic and mythological context of the figures” Allroggen-Bedel (2017). Thus, the answer is that we have commonly loosened mythological knowledge and cannot acknowledge such allusion. The second question is strictly connected to our loosening of mythological views. It probably arises from the grace of the image and from the presence of flowers, which easily reconnects to the image of Spring. The third question finds an explanation for the loosening of symbolic values in the representation and our small familiarity with nature. When analyzing the ancient representation and interpreting their messages, we cannot apply the modern feeling, but it is fundamental to rediscover their way of communication (Caneva 2010).

4 Conclusion

All the elements describing the famous painting of the young girl (age, dress color, action, and position) picking flowers in the Ariadne House fit with a representation of Persephone immediately before the dramatic rap by Hade. The characteristics of the painted plants have clear similarities with the flax plant, as illustrated by Egyptians and Sumerians. The selection of the flax plant can be explained considering its classical association with the “feminine” and is a representation of both “fertility” and of the “underworld”, which can be found in ancient cultures, particularly in the ancient Greco-Roman one. Then the representation of plants and flowers does not simply allude to “Flora”, which is the personification of the Spring, but strengthens the deep, even if cryptic, allusion to the mythological sphere.