Abstract
Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) and concussion substantially burden patients, care providers, and society. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention & National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, 2010) stated that concussion and brain injury symptoms could persist for days, weeks, or longer, and that recovery can be slower for old individuals, young children, teens, and those with a prior traumatic brain injury (TBI) history. Evidence shows that individuals with mTBI can have delayed recovery with limited community integration and substantial long-term disability. Also, considerable evidence from multiple sources underscore the association between mTBI and the increased rate of suicide, suicide attempt, and suicide ideation. Yet, according to the New York Academy of Science, there is limited concordance between neurobiological explanations for concussion and neuropsychological functions. Current medical research is equivocal on the prognosis rate of recovery and duration of mTBI, particularly after many months. While some experts suggest that those not showing signs of improvement are a distinct group of patients that have “intentional” TBI symptoms (e.g., for litigation and disability entitlement purposes), many individuals genuinely suffer from sensory dysfunctions months post-TBI. Using an evidence-based approach, we review the relevant literature on the chronic somatosensory dysfunctions emanating from mTBI/concussion, including vestibular dysfunction, and start by presenting a clinical case. It is believed that vestibular dysfunctions (e.g., ataxia, benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV), and persistent postural-perceptual dizziness (PPPD), just to name a few), whether due to a central or peripheral lesion and with impact on return to work or to sport that affects roughly half of acute TBI patients, tend to be cryptogenic in nature in chronic TBI cases. In forensic detailed evaluations, it is often challenging to separate the cognitive impact of mTBI from the vestibular issues alone. Furthermore, assessment of vestibular dysfunction (e.g., dizziness, vertigo, nystagmus, imbalance, and persistent nausea), diagnostic criteria, neurocognitive consequences, psychiatric comorbidities with psychological impacts, and treatment approaches (e.g., pharmacotherapy and rehabilitation), with emphasis on implications for neuropsychological assessment practice, and future research guideline are discussed. Also reviewed is the nosology of vestibular dysfunction and mTBI.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Akin, F. W., & Murnane, O. D. (2011). Head injury and blast exposure: Vestibular consequences. Otolaryngologic Clinics of North America, 44(2), 323–334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.otc.2011.01.005
Akin, F. W., Murnane, O. D., Hall, C. D., & Riska, K. M. (2017). Vestibular consequences of mild traumatic brain injury and blast exposure: A review. Brain Injury, 31(9), 1188–1194. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699052.2017.1288928
Alghwiri, A., & Whitney, S. L. (2019). Balance and falls in older adults. In D. Avers & R. Wong (Eds.), Guccione’s geriatric physical therapy (4th ed., pp. 220–239). Canada: Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-60912-8.00010-5
Alkathiry, A. A., Sparto, P. J., Kontos, A. P., & Furman, J. M. (2019). Chapter 10 - Vestibular dysfunction associated with mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI). In M. E. Hoffer & C. D. Balaban (Eds.), Neurosensory disorders in mild traumatic brain injury (pp. 133–148). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-812344-7.00010-8
American Optometric Association. (2020). Nystagmus. American Optometric Association. Retrieved April 05 from https://www.aoa.org/patients-and-public/eye-and-vision-problems/glossary-of-eye-and-vision-conditions/nystagmus
Andersen, K. A. A., Carhart-Harris, R., Nutt, D. J., & Erritzoe, D. (2021). Therapeutic effects of classic serotonergic psychedelics: A systematic review of modern-era clinical studies. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 143(2), 101–118. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.13249
Angelaki, D. E., Klier, E. M., & Snyder, L. H. (2009). A vestibular sensation: Probabilistic approaches to spatial perception. Neuron, 64(4), 448–461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2009.11.010
Banerjee, N., Getz, S. J., & Levin, B. E. (2019). Chapter 13 - Cognitive-emotional-vestibular triad in mild traumatic brain injury. In M. E. Hoffer & C. D. Balaban (Eds.), Neurosensory disorders in mild traumatic brain injury (pp. 183–198). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-812344-7.00013-3
Barabasz-Gembczyk, A., & Kucia, K. (2020). Ayahuasca - Potential therapeutic properties in psychiatry. Research review. Psychiatria Polska, 54(2), 381–389. https://doi.org/10.12740/PP/103364
Barbeau, E. J., & Joubert, S. (2010). Disorders of face processing. In G. Koob, M. Le Moal, & R. Thompson (Eds.), Encyclopedia of behavioral neuroscience (1st ed., Vol. 1, pp. 405–410). Elsevier: Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-045396-5.00044-0
Barnett, B. P., & Singman, E. L. (2015). Vision concerns after mild traumatic brain injury. Current Treatment Options in Neurology, 17(2), 329. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11940-014-0329-y
Beh, S. C. (2021). The neuropsychology of dizziness and related disorders. Otolaryngologic Clinics of North America, 54(5), 989–997. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.otc.2021.05.016
Bergeron, M., Lortie, C. L., & Guitton, M. J. (2015). Use of virtual reality tools for vestibular disorders rehabilitation: A comprehensive analysis. Advances in Medicine, 2015, 916735. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/916735
Berkowitz, A. (2017). Lange clinical neurology and neuroanatomy: A localization-based approach. McGraw-Hill Education - Medica.
Best, C., Tschan, R., Eckhardt-Henn, A., & Dieterich, M. (2009). Who is at risk for ongoing dizziness and psychological strain after a vestibular disorder? Neuroscience, 164(4), 1579–1587. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.09.034
Bigelow, R. T., & Agrawal, Y. (2015). Vestibular involvement in cognition: Visuospatial ability, attention, executive function, and memory. Journal of Vestibular Research, 25(2), 73–89. https://doi.org/10.3233/VES-150544
Bigler, E. D. (2008). Neuropsychology and clinical neuroscience of persistent post-concussive syndrome. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 14(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1017/S135561770808017X
Bisdorff, A., Von Brevern, M., Lempert, T., & Newman-Toker, D. E. (2009). Classification of vestibular symptoms: Towards an international classification of vestibular disorders. Journal of Vestibular Research, 19(1–2), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3233/VES-2009-0343
Blumenfeld, H. (2018). Neuroanatomy through clinical cases (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
Boone, K. B. (2021). Assessment of feigned cognitive impairment. Guilford Publications.
Brandt, T. (2003). Chapter 15 - Dizziness and vertigo. In T. Brandt, L. R. Caplan, J. Dichgans, H. C. Diener, & C. Kennard (Eds.), Neurological disorders (2nd ed., pp. 139–164). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrneurol.2017.58
Brandt, T., & Dieterich, M. (1999). The vestibular cortex. Its locations, functions, and disorders. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 871, 293–312. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999.tb09193.x
Brandt, T., & Dieterich, M. (2017). The dizzy patient: Don’t forget disorders of the central vestibular system. Nature Reviews Neurology, 13(6), 352–362. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrneurol.2017.58
Brazis, P. W., Masdeu, J. C., & Biller, J. (2017). Localization in clinical neurology (7th ed.). Wolters Kluwer.
Bronstein, A. M. (1995a). The visual vertigo syndrome. Acta Otolaryngologica Supplemental, 520(Pt 1), 45–48. https://doi.org/10.3109/00016489509125186
Bronstein, A. M. (1995b). Visual vertigo syndrome: Clinical and posturography findings. Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 59(5), 472–476. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.59.5.472
Capizzi, A., Woo, J., & Verduzco-Gutierrez, M. (2020). Traumatic brain injury: An overview of epidemiology, pathophysiology, and medical management. Medical Clinics of North America, 104(2), 213–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mcna.2019.11.001
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, & National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. (2010). Facts about concussion and brain injury: Where to get help. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. Retrieved December 25, 2023 from https://www.cdc.gov/headsup/pdfs/providers/facts_about_concussion_tbi-a.pdf
Chabbert, C. (2016). Chapter 14 - Principles of vestibular pharmacotherapy. In J. M. Furman & T. Lempert (Eds.), Handbook of clinical neurology (Vol. 137, pp. 207–218). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63437-5.00014-5
Chamelian, L., & Feinstein, A. (2004). Outcome after mild to moderate traumatic brain injury: The role of dizziness. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 85(10), 1662–1666. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2004.02.012
Chamelian, L., Reis, M., & Feinstein, A. (2004). Six-month recovery from mild to moderate traumatic brain injury: The role of APOE-epsilon4 allele. Brain, 127(Pt 12), 2621–2628. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awh296
Chen, G., Zhao, X., Yu, G., Jian, H., Li, Y., & Xu, G. (2019). Otolith dysfunction in recurrent benign paroxysmal positional vertigo after mild traumatic brain injury. Acta Otolaryngologica, 139(1), 18–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/00016489.2018.1562214
Choi, S. Y., Jang, J. Y., Oh, E. H., Choi, J. H., Park, J. Y., Lee, S. H., ... Choi, K. D. (2018). Persistent geotropic positional nystagmus in unilateral cerebellar lesions. Neurology, 91(11), e1053–e1057. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000006167
Chu, S. Y., Tsai, Y. H., Xiao, S. H., Huang, S. J., & Yang, C. C. (2017). Quality of return to work in patients with mild traumatic brain injury: A prospective investigation of associations among post-concussion symptoms, neuropsychological functions, working status and stability. Brain Injury, 31(12), 1674–1682. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699052.2017.1332783
Chung, J. (2017, May 03). The anatomy of vertigo. Retrieved April 05 from https://medium.com/@drjonathanchung/the-anatomy-of-vertigo-c8e5385a8ca8
Cousins, S., Cutfield, N. J., Kaski, D., Palla, A., Seemungal, B. M., Golding, J. F., ... Bronstein, A. M. (2014). Visual dependency and dizziness after vestibular neuritis. PLoS One, 9(9), e105426. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0105426
Cullen, K. E. (2016). Physiology of central pathways. In J. M. Furman & T. Lempert (Eds.), Handbook of clinical neurology: Neuro-otology (Vol. 137, pp. 17–40). Elsevier B.V.
Cullen, K. E. (2019). Vestibular processing during natural self-motion: Implications for perception and action. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 20(6), 346–363. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41583-019-0153-1
De Clercq, H., Naude, A., & Bornman, J. (2017). Investigating nystagmus in patients with traumatic brain injury: A systematic review (1996–2016). South African Medical Journal, 107(11), 957–964. https://doi.org/10.7196/SAMJ.2017.v107i11.12472
Deroualle, D., & Lopez, C. (2014). Toward a vestibular contribution to social cognition. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience, 8, 16. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnint.2014.00016
Dieterich, M., & Brandt, T. (2018). Global orientation in space and the lateralization of brain functions. Current Opinion in Neurology, 31(1), 96–104. https://doi.org/10.1097/WCO.0000000000000516
Dix, M. R., & Hallpike, C. S. (1952). The pathology symptomatology and diagnosis of certain common disorders of the vestibular system. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 45(6), 341–354. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14941845
Dougherty, J. M., Carney, M., Hohman, M. H., & Emmady, P. D. (2022). Vestibular dysfunction. StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32644352
Dunlap, P. M., Holmberg, J. M., & Whitney, S. L. (2019). Vestibular rehabilitation: Advances in peripheral and central vestibular disorders. Current Opinion in Neurology, 32(1), 137–144. https://doi.org/10.1097/WCO.0000000000000632
Dwyer, B., & Katz, D. I. (2018). Postconcussion Syndrome. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 158, 163–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63954-7.00017-3
Eggers, S. D. Z., Bisdorff, A., von Brevern, M., Zee, D. S., Kim, J. S., Perez-Fernandez, N., ... Newman-Toker, D. E. (2019). Classification of vestibular signs and examination techniques: Nystagmus and nystagmus-like movements. Journal of Vestibular Research, 29(2–3), 57–87. https://doi.org/10.3233/VES-190658
Ernst, A., Basta, D., Seidl, R. O., Todt, I., Scherer, H., & Clarke, A. (2005). Management of posttraumatic vertigo. Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, 132(4), 554–558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.otohns.2004.09.034
Felipe, F. A., de Carvalho, F. O., Silva, E. R., Santos, N. G. L., Fontes, P. A., de Almeida, A. S., ... de Souza Araujo, A. A. (2020). Evaluation instruments for physical therapy using virtual reality in stroke patients: A systematic review. Physiotherapy, 106, 194–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physio.2019.05.005
Fife, T. D. (2021). Approach to the history and evaluation of vertigo and dizziness. Continuum (minneap Minn), 27(2), 306–329. https://doi.org/10.1212/CON.0000000000000938
Fife, T. D., & Kalra, D. (2015). Persistent vertigo and dizziness after mild traumatic brain injury. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1343, 97–105. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.12678
Galeno, E., Pullano, E., Mourad, F., Galeoto, G., & Frontani, F. (2022). Effectiveness of vestibular rehabilitation after concussion: A systematic review of randomised controlled trial. Healthcare (Basel). https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare11010090
Gard, A., Al-Husseini, A., Kornaropoulos, E. N., De Maio, A., Tegner, Y., Bjorkman-Burtscher, I., ... Marklund, N. (2022). Post-concussive vestibular dysfunction is related to injury to the inferior vestibular nerve. Journal of Neurotrauma, 39(11–12), 829–840. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2021.0447
Garzorz, I. T., & MacNeilage, P. R. (2019). Towards dynamic modeling of visual-vestibular conflict detection. Progress in Brain Research, 248, 277–284. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.pbr.2019.03.018
Gattu, R., Akin, F. W., Cacace, A. T., Hall, C. D., Murnane, O. D., & Haacke, E. M. (2016). Vestibular, balance, microvascular and white matter neuroimaging characteristics of blast injuries and mild traumatic brain injury: Four case reports. Brain Injury, 30(12), 1501–1514. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699052.2016.1219056
Geurts, A. C., Knoop, J. A., & van Limbeek, J. (1999). Is postural control associated with mental functioning in the persistent postconcussion syndrome? Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 80(2), 144–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0003-9993(99)90111-9
Gil, C., & Decq, P. (2021). How similar are whiplash and mild traumatic brain injury? A Systematic Review. Neurochirurgie, 67(3), 238–243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuchi.2021.01.016
Giromini, L., Young, G., & Sellbom, M. (2022). Assessing negative response bias using self-report measures: New articles, new issues. Psychological Injury and Law, 15(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-022-09444-2
Gobert, D., Mattingly, H., Wallace, B., Cauthen, H. M., & Fell, D. W. (2018). Intervention for vestibular impairment. In D. Fell, K. Y. Lunnen, & R. Rauk (Eds.), Lifespan neurorehabilitation: A patient-centered approach from examination to interventions and outcomes (Illustrated ed., pp. 918–941). F. A. Davis Company.
Goldberg, S. B., Pace, B. T., Nicholas, C. R., Raison, C. L., & Hutson, P. R. (2020). The experimental effects of psilocybin on symptoms of anxiety and depression: A meta-analysis. Psychiatry Research, 284, 112749. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.112749
Grafman, J. (2000). Conceptualizing functional neuroplasticity. Journal of Communication Disorders, 33(4), 345–355; quiz 355–346. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0021-9924(00)00030-7
Groen, J. J. (1960). Problems of the semicircular canal from a mechanicophysiological point of view. Acta-oto-Laryngologica. https://doi.org/10.3109/00016486109121806
Hampel, H., Gao, P., Cummings, J., Toschi, N., Thompson, P. M., Hu, Y., ... Vergallo, A. (2023). The foundation and architecture of precision medicine in neurology and psychiatry. Trends in Neurosciences, 46(3), 176–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2022.12.004
Han, B. I., Song, H. S., & Kim, J. S. (2011). Vestibular rehabilitation therapy: Review of indications, mechanisms, and key exercises. Journal of Clinical Neurology, 7(4), 184–196. https://doi.org/10.3988/jcn.2011.7.4.184
Hauser, S. L., & Josephson, S. A. (2010). Harrison’s neurology in clinical medicine (2nd ed.). McGraw Hill Medical.
Held, R. (1961). Exposure-history as a factor in maintaining stability of perception and coordination. Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases, 132, 26–32. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13713070
Herdman, D., Norton, S., Murdin, L., Frost, K., Pavlou, M., & Moss-Morris, R. (2022). The INVEST trial: A randomised feasibility trial of psychologically informed vestibular rehabilitation versus current gold standard physiotherapy for people with persistent postural perceptual dizziness. Journal of Neurology, 269(9), 4753–4763. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-022-11107-w
Herdman, D., Norton, S., Pavlou, M., Murdin, L., & Moss-Morris, R. (2020). Vestibular deficits and psychological factors correlating to dizziness handicap and symptom severity. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 132, 109969. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2020.109969
Hitier, M., Besnard, S., & Smith, P. F. (2014). Vestibular pathways involved in cognition. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience, 8, 59. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnint.2014.00059
Hoffer, M. E., Gottshall, K. R., Moore, R., Balough, B. J., & Wester, D. (2004). Characterizing and treating dizziness after mild head trauma. Otology & Neurotology, 25(2), 135–138. https://doi.org/10.1097/00129492-200403000-00009
Ibitoye, R. T., Castro, P., Cooke, J., Allum, J., Arshad, Q., Murdin, L., ... Bronstein, A. M. (2022). A link between frontal white matter integrity and dizziness in cerebral small vessel disease. NeuroImage: Clinical, 35, 103098. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2022.103098
Iwasaki, S., & Yamasoba, T. (2015). Dizziness and imbalance in the elderly: Age-related decline in the vestibular system. Aging and Disease, 6(1), 38–47. https://doi.org/10.14336/AD.2014.0128
Jacobson, G. P., & Newman, C. W. (1990). The development of the dizziness handicap inventory. Archives of Otorhinolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, 116(4), 424–427. https://doi.org/10.1001/archotol.1990.01870040046011
Jahn, K., Saul, A. K., Elstner, M., Sapa, K., & Kellerer, S. (2018). Vestibular rehabilitation therapy and Nintendo Wii balance board training both improve postural control in bilateral vestibulopathy. Journal of Neurology, 265(Suppl 1), 70–73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-018-8882-z
Kamal, N., Taha, H., El-Kabarity, R., & Housni, D. (2017). Visual vestibular mismatch: Is it a vestibular disorder? The Egyptian Journal of Otolaryngology, 33(4), 645. https://doi.org/10.14336/AD.2014.0128
Kashluba, S., Paniak, C., Blake, T., Reynolds, S., Toller-Lobe, G., & Nagy, J. (2004). A longitudinal, controlled study of patient complaints following treated mild traumatic brain injury. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 19(6), 805–816. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2003.09.005
Kates, M. M., & Beal, C. J. (2021). Nystagmus. JAMA, 325(8), 798. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.3911
Kaufman, K. R., Brey, R. H., Chou, L. S., Rabatin, A., Brown, A. W., & Basford, J. R. (2006). Comparison of subjective and objective measurements of balance disorders following traumatic brain injury. Medical Engineering & Physics, 28(3), 234–239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.medengphy.2005.05.005
Kelm, Z., Klapchar, K., Kieliszak, C. R., & Selinsky, C. (2018). Psychogenic dizziness: An important but overlooked differential diagnosis in the workup of the dizzy patient. Journal of the American Osteopathic Association, 118(5), e22–e27. https://doi.org/10.7556/jaoa.2018.066
Kheradmand, A., Colpak, A. I., & Zee, D. S. (2016). Eye movements in vestibular disorders. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 137, 103–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63437-5.00008-X
Kiernan, J. A. (1998). Vestibular System. In J. A. Kiernan (Ed.), Barr’s the human nervous system: An anatomical viewpoint (7th ed., pp. 396–405). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Kingma, H., & van de Berg, R. (2016). Anatomy, physiology, and physics of the peripheral vestibular system. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 137, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63437-5.00001-7
Kleffelgaard, I., Langhammer, B., Hellstrom, T., Sandhaug, M., Tamber, A. L., & Soberg, H. L. (2017). Dizziness-related disability following mild-moderate traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 31(11), 1436–1444. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699052.2017.1377348
Kleffelgaard, I., Roe, C., Soberg, H. L., & Bergland, A. (2012). Associations among self-reported balance problems, post-concussion symptoms and performance-based tests: A longitudinal follow-up study. Disability and Rehabilitation, 34(9), 788–794. https://doi.org/10.3109/09638288.2011.619624
Kleffelgaard, I., Soberg, H. L., Bruusgaard, K. A., Tamber, A. L., & Langhammer, B. (2016). Vestibular rehabilitation after traumatic brain injury: Case series. Physical Therapy, 96(6), 839–849. https://doi.org/10.2522/ptj.20150095
Knight, B., Bermudez, F., & Shermetaro, C. (2023). Persistent postural-perceptual dizziness. StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35201726
Kolev, O. I., & Sergeeva, M. (2016). Vestibular disorders following different types of head and neck trauma. Functional Neurology, 31(2), 75–80. https://doi.org/10.11138/fneur/2016.31.2.075
Konrad, H. R. (1990). Vertigo and associated symptoms. In H. K. Walker, W. D. Hall, & J. W. Hurst (Eds.), Clinical methods: The history, physical, and laboratory examinations (3rd ed., pp. 604–606). Butterworths.
Lacour, M. (2006). Restoration of vestibular function: Basic aspects and practical advances for rehabilitation. Current Medical Research and Opinion, 22(9), 1651–1659. https://doi.org/10.1185/030079906X115694
Lalwani, A. K. (2020). Vestibular Disorders. In A. K. Lalwani (Ed.), Current diagnosis & treatment otolaryngology--Head and neck surgery (4th ed., pp. 904–916). McGraw Hill.
Lange, B., Chang, C. Y., Suma, E., Newman, B., Rizzo, A. S., & Bolas, M. (2011). Development and evaluation of low cost game-based balance rehabilitation tool using the microsoft kinect sensor. Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC), 2011, 1831–1834. https://doi.org/10.1109/IEMBS.2011.6090521
Lee, A. G., & Brazis, P. W. (2006). Localizing forms of nystagmus: Symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment. Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports, 6(5), 414–420. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11910-996-0022-y
LeMarshall, S. J., Stevens, L. M., Ragg, N. P., Barnes, L., Foster, J., & Canetti, E. F. D. (2023). Virtual reality-based interventions for the rehabilitation of vestibular and balance impairments post-concussion: A scoping review. Journal of Neuroengeenering and Rehabilitation, 20(1), 31. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12984-023-01145-4
Lewis, R. F., & Carey, J. P. (2006). Images in clinical medicine. Abnormal eye movements associated with unilateral loss of vestibular function. New England Journal of Medicine, 355(24), e26. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMicm031134
Lipp, M., & Longridge, N. S. (1994). Computerised dynamic posturography: Its place in the evaluation of patients with dizziness and imbalance. The Journal of otolaryngology, 23(3), 177–183. http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/8064956
Littlefield, P. D., Pinto, R. L., Burrows, H. L., & Brungart, D. S. (2016). The vestibular effects of repeated low-level blasts. Journal of Neurotrauma, 33(1), 71–81. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2014.3824
Longridge, N. S., & Mallinson, A. I. (2005). Visual vestibular mismatch in work-related vestibular injury. Otology & Neurotology, 26(4), 691–694. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16015170
Longridge, N. S., & Mallinson, A. I. (2010). Clinical romberg testing does not detect vestibular disease. Otology & Neurotology, 31(5), 803–806. https://doi.org/10.1097/MAO.0b013e3181e3deb2
Longridge, N. S., & Mallinson, A. I. (2018). Tone-induced cervical and ocular vestibular-evoked myogenic potentials: Comparing abnormalities in traumatic and non-traumatic vestibular disease. Journal of Laryngology and Otology, 132(10), 906–910. https://doi.org/10.1017/S002221511800172X
Lumba-Brown, A., Teramoto, M., Bloom, O. J., Brody, D., Chesnutt, J., Clugston, J. R., ... Ghajar, J. (2020). Concussion guidelines step 2: Evidence for subtype classification. Neurosurgery, 86(1), 2–13. https://doi.org/10.1093/neuros/nyz332
Maas, A. I. R., Menon, D. K., Manley, G. T., Abrams, M., Akerlund, C., Andelic, N., ... Investigators. (2022). Traumatic brain injury: Progress and challenges in prevention, clinical care, and research. Lancet Neurology, 21(11), 1004–1060. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(22)00309-X
Magnusson, M., & Malmström, E. M. (2016). Chapter 26 - The conundrum of cervicogenic dizziness. In J. M. Furman & T. Lempert (Eds.), Handbook of clinical neurology (Vol. 137, pp. 365–369). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63437-5.00026-1
Mallinson, A. I. (2011). Visual vestibular mismatch: A poorly understood presentation of balance system disease. Maastricht University. https://art.mallinson.ca/docs/Visual-Vestibular-Mismatch.pdf Unpublished doctoral thesis.
Mallinson, A. I., & Longridge, N. S. (1998). Dizziness from whiplash and head injury: Differences between whiplash and head injury. American Journal of Otolaryngology, 19(6), 814–818. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9831160
Mallinson, A. I., & Longridge, N. S. (2005). A new set of criteria for evaluating malingering in work-related vestibular injury. Otology & Neurotology, 26(4), 686–690. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.mao.0000169639.48193.fb
Mallinson, A. I., & Longridge, N. S. (2018). Performing and analysing tone-induced cervical and ocular vestibular-evoked myogenic potentials in traumatic and non-traumatic vestibular pathology. Journal of Laryngology and Otology, 132(10), 896–900. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022215118001706
Mallinson, A. I., Kuijpers, A. C. M., Van Zwieten, G., Kakal, J., Mullings, W., & Longridge, N. S. (2019). Computerized dynamic posturography does not detect measured CVEMP and OVEMP abnormalities. Gait & Posture, 67, 248–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaitpost.2018.10.019
Management of Concussion/mTBI Working Group. (2009). VA/DoD clinical practice guideline for management of concussion/mild traumatic brain injury. Journal of Rehabilitation Research & Development, 46(6), CP1-68. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20108447
Mantokoudis, G., Zwergal, A., Heg, D., Kerkeni, H., Diener, S. D., Kalla, R., ... Tarnutzer, A. A. (2023). Needs and supporting tools for primary care physicians to improve care of patients with vertigo and dizziness: A national survey. Frontiers in Neurology, 14, 1254105. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2023.1254105
Marcus, H. J., Paine, H., Sargeant, M., Wolstenholme, S., Collins, K., Marroney, N., ... Seemungal, B. M. (2019). Vestibular dysfunction in acute traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurology, 266(10), 2430–2433. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-019-09403-z
Mazza, M., Marano, G., & Mazza, S. (2009). Dizziness: Interfacing psychiatry and neuro-otology. In A. Lindqvist & G. Nyman (Eds.), Dizziness: Vertigo, disequilibrium and lightheadedness. Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
McConville, K. M. V., & Virk, S. (2012). Evaluation of an electronic video game for improvement of balance. Virtual Reality, 16(4), 315–323. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-012-0212-7
Meldrum, D., & Jahn, K. (2019). Gaze stabilisation exercises in vestibular rehabilitation: Review of the evidence and recent clinical advances. Journal of Neurology, 266(Suppl 1), 11–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-019-09459-x
Menant, J. C., Migliaccio, A. A., Sturnieks, D. L., Hicks, C., Lo, J., Ratanapongleka, M., ... Lord, S. R. (2018). Reducing the burden of dizziness in middle-aged and older people: A multifactorial, tailored, single-blind randomized controlled trial. PLoS Medicine, 15(7), e1002620. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1002620
Menshikova, G. Y., Kovalev, A. I., Klimova, O. A., & Chernorizov, A. M. (2015). Eye movements as indicators of vestibular dysfunction. Perception, 44(8–9), 1103–1109. https://doi.org/10.1177/0301006615594916
Merten, T., Friedel, E., Mehren, G., & Stevens, A. (2007). Negative response bias and the validity of personality profiles in neuropsychiatric assessment. Nervenarzt, 78(5), 511–512, 514–516, 518–520. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00115-006-2101-3. Uber die Validitat von Personlichkeitsprofilen in der nervenarztlichen Begutachtung.
Merten, T., Dandachi-FitzGerald, B., Boskovic, I., Puente-López, E., & Merckelbach, H. (2022). The self-report symptom inventory. Psychological Injury and Law, 15(1), 94–103.
Mesfin, F. B., Gupta, N., Hays Shapshak, A., & Taylor, R. S. (2023). Diffuse axonal injury. StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28846342
Mrazek, M. D., Mooneyham, B. W., Mrazek, K. L., & Schooler, J. W. (2016). Pushing the limits: Cognitive, affective, and neural plasticity revealed by an intensive multifaceted intervention. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 10, 117. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2016.00117
Mucha, A., Fedor, S., & DeMarco, D. (2018). Vestibular dysfunction and concussion. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 158, 135–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63954-7.00014-8
Murray, D. A., Meldrum, D., & Lennon, O. (2017). Can vestibular rehabilitation exercises help patients with concussion? A systematic review of efficacy, prescription and progression patterns. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 51(5), 442–451. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2016-096081
Murray, K., Aquino, N., & Nugent, J. (2019). Chapter 8: The role of the physical therapis on the neuro-rehabilitation team. In J. Elbaum (Ed.), Acquired Brain Injury (pp. 163–199). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16613-7_8
Muttoni, S., Ardissino, M., & John, C. (2019). Classical psychedelics for the treatment of depression and anxiety: A systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders, 258, 11–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.07.076
Napoleone, D., Silberglied, T., L’Abbate, G., & Fried, D. (2019). The role of occupational therapy in neurorehabilitation. In J. Elbaum (Ed.), Acquired brain injury: An integrative neuro-rehabilitation approach (pp. 135–161). Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16613-7_7
Neely, D. E., & Sprunger, D. T. (1999). Nystagmus. Current Opinion in Ophthalmology, 10(5), 320–326. https://doi.org/10.1097/00055735-199910000-00007
Nuti, D., Masini, M., & Mandala, M. (2016). Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo and its variants. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 137, 241–256. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63437-5.00018-2
Palla, A., & Lenggenhager, B. (2014). Ways to investigate vestibular contributions to cognitive processes. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience, 8, 40. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnint.2014.00040
Paniak, C., Reynolds, S., Phillips, K., Toller-Lobe, G., Melnyk, A., & Nagy, J. (2002). Patient complaints within 1 month of mild traumatic brain injury: A controlled study. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 17(4), 319–334. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14589717
Paxman, E., Stilling, J., Mercier, L., & Debert, C. T. (2018). Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) as a treatment for chronic dizziness following mild traumatic brain injury. BMJ Case Report. https://doi.org/10.1136/bcr-2018-226698
Pick, S., Goldstein, L. H., Perez, D. L., & Nicholson, T. R. (2019). Emotional processing in functional neurological disorder: A review, biopsychosocial model and research agenda. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgry, and Psychiatry, 90(6), 704–711. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2018-319201
Pollock, N. (2009). Sensory integration: A review of the current state of the evidence. Occupational Therapy Now, 11, 6–10.
Radziej, K., Probst, T., Limburg, K., Dinkel, A., Dieterich, M., & Lahmann, C. (2018). The longitudinal effect of vertigo and dizziness symptoms on psychological distress: Symptom-related fears and beliefs as mediators. Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases, 206(4), 277–285. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0000000000000791
Reason, J. T. (1978). Motion sickness adaptation: A neural mismatch model. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 71(11), 819–829. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/731645
Reiff, C. M., Richman, E. E., Nemeroff, C. B., Carpenter, L. L., Widge, A. S., Rodriguez, C. I., ... McDonald, W. M. (2020). Psychedelics and psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy. American Journal of Psychiatry, 177(5), 391–410. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2019.19010035
Reilly, B. M. (1990). Dizziness. In H. K. Walker, W. D. Hall, & J. W. Hurst (Eds.), Clinical methods: The history, physical, and laboratory examinations (3rd ed., pp. 949–953). Butterworths.
Rogge, A. K., Roder, B., Zech, A., & Hotting, K. (2018). Exercise-induced neuroplasticity: Balance training increases cortical thickness in visual and vestibular cortical regions. NeuroImage, 179, 471–479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.06.065
Roh, K. J., Kim, M. K., Kim, J. H., & Son, E. J. (2017). Role of emotional distress in prolongation of dizziness: A cross-sectional study. Journal of Audiology & Otology, 22(1), 6–12. https://doi.org/10.7874/jao.2017.00290
Rucker, J. C. (2019). Nystagmus and Saccadic Intrusions. Continuum (minneap Minn), 25(5), 1376–1400. https://doi.org/10.1212/CON.0000000000000772
Ruiz, T., Baldwin, A. S., Spiegel, D. P., Hess, R., & Farivar, R. (2019). Increased noise in cortico-cortical integration after mild TBI measured with the equivalent noise technique. Frontiers in Neurology, 10, 767. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2019.00767
Sadock, B. J., Sadock, V. A., & Ruiz, P. (2017). Kaplan & Sadock’s concise textbook of clinical psychiatry: Derived from Kaplan & Sadock’s synopsis of psychiatry, eleventh edition (4th ed.). Woltrs Kluwer.
Schmid, D. A., Allum, J. H. J., Sleptsova, M., Gross, S., Gaab, J., Welge-Lussen, A., ... Langewitz, W. (2018). Effects of a program of cognitive-behavioural group therapy, vestibular rehabilitation, and psychoeducational explanations on patients with dizziness and no quantified balance deficit, compared to patients with dizziness and a quantified balance deficit. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 105, 21–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2017.11.020
Schroeder, R. W., & Martin, P. K. (2022). Validity assessment in clinical neuropsychological practice: Evaluating and managing noncredible performance (1st ed.). The Guilford Press.
Schultz, I. Z., Sepehry, A. A., & Greer, S. C. (2018a). Cognitive impact of fatigue in forensic neuropsychology context. Psychological Injury and Law, 11(2), 108–119. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-018-9324-z
Schultz, I. Z., Sepehry, A. A., & Greer, S. C. (2018b). Impact of common mental health disorders on cognition: Depression and posttraumatic stress disorder in forensic neuropsychology context. Psychological Injury and Law, 11(2), 139–152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-018-9322-1
Schultz, I. Z., Sepehry, A. A., & Greer, S. C. (2018c). Impact of pain on cognitive function in forensic neuropsychology context. Psychological Injury and Law, 11(2), 129–138. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-018-9318-x
Schultz, I. Z., Sepehry, A. A., & Greer, S. C. (2018d). Impact of tinnitus on cognitive function in forensic neuropsychology context. Psychological Injury and Law, 11, 120–128. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-018-9321-2
Sekhon, R. K., Rocha Cabrero, F., & Deibel, J. P. (2023). Nystagmus types. StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30969533
Sepehry, A. A., Tyldesley, S., Davis, M. K., Simmons, C., Rauscher, A., & Lang, D. J. (2016). RE: Elucidating pretreatment cognitive impairment in breast cancer patients: The impact of cancer-related post-traumatic stress. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/djw048
Silverberg, N. D., Iverson, G. L., ACRM Brain Injury Special Interest Group Mild TBI Task Force the ACRM Mild Tbi Definition Expert Consensus Group, ACRM Brain Injury Special Interest Group Mild TBI Task Force members, Cogan, A., Dams-O’Connor, K., ... Zemek, R. (2023). The American congress of rehabilitation medicine diagnostic criteria for mild traumatic brain injury. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 104(8), 1343–1355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2023.03.036
Skora, W., Stanczyk, R., Pajor, A., & Jozefowicz-Korczynska, M. (2018). Vestibular system dysfunction in patients after mild traumatic brain injury. Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine, 25(4), 665–668. https://doi.org/10.26444/aaem/81138
Slade, M., & Hoffer, M. E. (2019). Chapter 4 - Defining cure. In M. E. Hoffer & C. D. Balaban (Eds.), Neurosensory disorders in mild traumatic brain injury (pp. 49–52). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-812344-7.00004-2
Smith, P. F., & Darlington, C. L. (2013). Personality changes in patients with vestibular dysfunction. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 678. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00678
Smith, P. F., & Zheng, Y. (2013). From ear to uncertainty: Vestibular contributions to cognitive function. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience, 7, 84. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnint.2013.00084
Smith, P. F., Agrawal, Y., & Darlington, C. L. (2019). Sexual dimorphism in vestibular function and dysfunction. Journal of Neurophysiology, 121(6), 2379–2391. https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00074.2019
Smith, P. F., Zheng, Y., Horii, A., & Darlington, C. L. (2005). Does vestibular damage cause cognitive dysfunction in humans? Journal of Vestibular Research, 15(1), 1–9. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15908735
Smith, R. M., Burgess, C., Tahtis, V., Marsden, J., & Seemungal, B. M. (2023). Why are patients with acute traumatic brain injury not routinely assessed or treated for vestibular dysfunction in the UK? A qualitative study. BMJ Open, 13(1), e067967. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2022-067967
Spielberg, J. M., McGlinchey, R. E., Milberg, W. P., & Salat, D. H. (2015). Brain network disturbance related to posttraumatic stress and traumatic brain injury in veterans. Biological Psychiatry, 78(3), 210–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.02.013
Staab, J. P. (2006). Chronic dizziness: The interface between psychiatry and neuro-otology. Current Opinion in Neurology, 19(1), 41–48.
Staab, J. P. (2012). Chronic subjective dizziness. Continuum (Minneap Minn), 18(5 Neuro-otology), 1118–1141. https://doi.org/10.1212/01.CON.0000421622.56525.58
Staab, J. P. (2016). Functional and psychiatric vestibular disorders. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 137, 341–351. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63437-5.00024-8
Staab, J. P. (2019). Psychiatric considerations in the management of dizzy patients. Advances in Otorhinolaryngology, 82, 170–179. https://doi.org/10.1159/000490286
Staab, J. P., & Powell, M. R. (2019). Neuropsychological and psychiatric comorbidities of mild traumatic brain injury. In M. E. Hoffer & C. D. Balaban (Eds.), Neurosensory disorders in mild traumatic brain injury (pp. 99–112). Elsevier, Inc. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-812344-7.00008-X
Staab, J. P., Eckhardt-Henn, A., Horii, A., Jacob, R., Strupp, M., Brandt, T., ... Bronstein, A. (2017). Diagnostic criteria for persistent postural-perceptual dizziness (PPPD): Consensus document of the committee for the classification of vestibular disorders of the barany society. Journal of Vestibular Research, 27(4), 191–208. https://doi.org/10.3233/VES-170622
Steenerson, K. K. (2021). Acute Vestibular Syndrome. Continuum (minneap Minn), 27(2), 402–419. https://doi.org/10.1212/CON.0000000000000958
Stein, M. B., Jain, S., Giacino, J. T., Levin, H., Dikmen, S., Nelson, L. D., ... Zafonte, R. (2019). Risk of posttraumatic stress disorder and major depression in civilian patients after mild traumatic brain injury: A TRACK-TBI study. JAMA Psychiatry, 76(3), 249–258. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.4288
Strupp, M., & Brandt, T. (2009). Current treatment of vestibular, ocular motor disorders and nystagmus. Therapeutic Advances in Neurological Disorders, 2(4), 223–239. https://doi.org/10.1177/1756285609103120
Strupp, M., Thurtell, M. J., Shaikh, A. G., Brandt, T., Zee, D. S., & Leigh, R. J. (2011). Pharmacotherapy of vestibular and ocular motor disorders, including nystagmus. Journal of Neurology, 258(7), 1207–1222. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-011-5999-8
Sulway, S., & Whitney, S. L. (2019). Advances in vestibular rehabilitation. Advances in Otorhinolaryngology, 82, 164–169. https://doi.org/10.1159/000490285
Szczupak, M., Hoffer, M. E., Gottshall, K., & Viirre, E. S. (2020). Vestibular consequences of mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI). In J. W. Tsao (Ed.), Traumatic brain injury: A clinician’s guide to diagnosis, management, and rehabilitation (pp. 151–158). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22436-3_8
Talkowski, M. E., Redfern, M. S., Jennings, J. R., & Furman, J. M. (2005). Cognitive requirements for vestibular and ocular motor processing in healthy adults and patients with unilateral vestibular lesions. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 17(9), 1432–1441. https://doi.org/10.1162/0898929054985419
Talmud, J. D., Coffey, R., & Edemekong, P. F. (2023). Dix Hallpike maneuver. StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29083696
Thurtell, M. J. (2015). Treatment of nystagmus. Seminars in Neurology, 35(5), 522–526. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0035-1563575
Tilikete, C., & Vighetto, A. (2011). Oscillopsia: Causes and management. Current Opinion in Neurology, 24(1), 38–43. https://doi.org/10.1097/WCO.0b013e328341e3b5
Tsang, K., Marcus, H. J., Paine, H., Sargeant, M., Jones, B., Smith, R., ... Seemungal, B. M. (2019). TP1–9 vestibular dysfunction in acute traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 90(3), e12. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2019-ABN.38
Vanspauwen, R. (2018). Dizziness and (fear of) falling in the elderly: A few facts. Journal of International Advanced Otology, 14(1), 1–2. https://doi.org/10.5152/iao.2018.0201815
Ventura, R. E., Balcer, L. J., & Galetta, S. L. (2014). The neuro-ophthalmology of head trauma. Lancet Neurology, 13(10), 1006–1016. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(14)70111-5
Vos, P. E., Alekseenko, Y., Battistin, L., Ehler, E., Gerstenbrand, F., Muresanu, D. F., et al. (2012). Mild traumatic brain injury. European Journal of Neurology, 19(2), 191–198. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-1331.2011.03581.x
Waljas, M., Iverson, G. L., Lange, R. T., Liimatainen, S., Hartikainen, K. M., Dastidar, P., ... Ohman, J. (2014). Return to work following mild traumatic brain injury. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 29(5), 443–450. https://doi.org/10.1097/HTR.0000000000000002
Walker, M. F., & Daroff, R. B. (2015). Dizzines and vertigo. In D. L. Kasper, S. L. Hauser, J. L. Jameson, A. Fauci, D. L. Longo, & J. Loscalzo (Eds.), Harrison’s principles of internal medicine (19th ed., pp. 148–151). McGraw-Hill Education.
Wiltink, J., Tschan, R., Michal, M., Subic-Wrana, C., Eckhardt-Henn, A., Dieterich, M., ... Beutel, M. E. (2009). Dizziness: Anxiety, health care utilization and health behavior–Results from a representative German community survey. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 66(5), 417–424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2008.09.012
Wynn, J. S., Ryan, J. D., & Buchsbaum, B. R. (2020). Eye movements support behavioral pattern completion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 117(11), 6246–6254. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1917586117
Yardley, L., Owen, N., Nazareth, I., & Luxon, L. (2001). Panic disorder with agoraphobia associated with dizziness: Characteristic symptoms and psychosocial sequelae. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 189(5), 321–327. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005053-200105000-00009
Yu, Y. C., Xue, H., Zhang, Y. X., & Zhou, J. (2018). Cognitive behavior therapy as augmentation for sertraline in treating patients with persistent postural-perceptual dizziness. Biomed Research International, 2018, 8518631. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/8518631
Ziaks, L., Giardina, R., & Kloss, A. (2019). Integration of vision and vestibular therapy for vestibulo-ocular post-concussion disorder – A case study. The Internet Journal of Allied Health Sciences and Practice, 17(3), Article 11.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Sepehry, A.A., Schultz, I.Z., Mallinson, A.I. et al. Chronic Vestibular System Dysfunction After mTBI: Neuropsychology, Neuropsychiatry, Neuroscience and Treatment. Psychol. Inj. and Law (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-024-09506-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-024-09506-7