The present study used a person-centered approach to identify adolescent out-of-school activity profiles and to examine whether academic achievement, cognitive ability and negative emotion vary across different profiles. Data were collected from 9312 adolescents, and four profiles were identified: the “academic tutoring profile”, the “moderate time-consuming profile”, the “screen profile” and the “low time-consuming profile”. These four profiles differed in academic achievement, cognitive ability and negative emotion. The students in the low time-consuming profile had the best performance on all indicators. Those in the academic tutoring profile had high academic achievement but a low level of cognitive ability and a high level of negative emotion. This result indicates that for some students, long-term academic tutoring can improve their academic achievement through emotional costs and that academic tutoring cannot improve their cognitive ability. The students in the screen profile had the worst performance on both academic achievement and cognitive ability, and the large amount of screen time did not even make them happy.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aishworiya, R., Cai, S. R., Chen, H. Y., Phua, D. Y., Broekman, B. F. P., Daniel, L. M., et al. (2019). Television viewing and child cognition in a longitudinal birth cohort in Singapore: The role of maternal factors. BMC Pediatrics, 19(1), 1–8.
Allahverdipour, H., Bazargan, M., Farhadinasab, A., & Moeini, B. (2010). Correlates of video games playing among adolescents in an Islamic country. BMC Public Health, 10(286), 1–7.
Anand, V. (2007). A study of time management: The correlation between video game usage and academic performance markers. Cyber Psychology & Behavior, 10(4), 552–559.
Anderson, C. A., & Dill, K. E. (2000). Video games and aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behavior in the laboratory and in life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(4), 772–790.
Ang, R. P., & Huan, V. S. (2006). Relationship between academic stress and suicidal ideation: Testing for depression as a mediator using multiple regression. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 37(2), 133–143.
Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B. (2014). Auxiliary variables in mixture modeling: Three-step approaches using mplus. Structural Equation Modeling, 21, 329–341.
Bakk, Z., & Vermunt, J. K. (2016). Robustness of stepwise latent class modeling with continuous distal outcomes. Structural Equation Modeling, 23, 20–31.
Baron, I. (1985). What kind of intelligence components are fundamental? In J. W. Segal, S. F. Chipman, & R. Glaser (Eds.), Thinking and learning skills (Vol. 2, pp. 365–390). Hillsdale: Erlbaum Press.
Bartko, W. T., & Eccles, J. S. (2003). Adolescent participation in structured and unstructured activities: A person-oriented analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32(4), 233–241.
Bolck, A., Croon, M. A., & Hagenaars, J. A. (2004). Estimating latent structure models with categorical variables: One-step versus three-step estimators. Political Analysis, 12, 3–27.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (2005). Making human beings human: Bioecological perspectives on human development. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 23(1), 143–151.
Byun, S. Y., & Park, H. (2012). The academic success of east Asian American youth: The role of shadow education. Sociology of Education, 85(1), 40–60.
Cheung, C. S. S., & Pomerantz, E. M. (2011). Parents’ involvement in children’s learning in the United States and China: Implications for children’s academic and emotional adjustment. Child Development, 82(3), 932–950.
Christakis, D. A., Zimmerman, F. J., DiGiuseppe, D. L., & McCarty, C. A. (2004). Early television exposure and subsequent attentional problems in children. Pediatrics, 113(4), 708–713.
Collins, L. M., & Lanza, S. T. (2010). Latent class and latent transition analysis. With applications in the social, behavioral, and health sciences. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons Press.
Cooper, H. (1989). Homework. White Plains: Longman.
Cooper, A., Putnam, D. E., Planchon, L. A., & Boies, S. C. (1999a). Online sexual compulsivity: Getting tangled in the net. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity: The Journal of Treatment and Prevention, 6(2), 79–104.
Cooper, H., Valentine, J. C., Nye, B., & Lindsay, J. J. (1999b). Relationships between five after-school activities and academic achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 369–378.
Cooper, H., Robinson, J. C., & Patall, E. A. (2006). Does homework improve academic achievement? A synthesis of research, 1987-2003. Review of Educational Research, 76, 1–62.
Du, F. (2018). Where did the time go?: China time use survey report. Beijing: China Social Science Press.
Eccles, J. S., & Templeton, J. (2002). Extracurricular and other after-school activities for youth. Review of Research in Education, 26(1), 113–180.
Flaherty, B. P., & Kiff, C. J. (2012). Latent class and latent profilemodels. In H. Cooper, P. M. Camic, D. L. Long, A. T. Panter, D. Rindskopf, & K. J. Sher (Eds.), APA handbook of research methods in psychology (Vol. 3: Data analysis and research publication) (pp. 391–404). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Gentile, D. A., Lynch, P. J., Linder, J. R., & Walsh, D. A. (2004). The effects of violent video game habits on adolescent hostility, aggressive behaviors, and school performance. Journal of Adolescence, 27(1), 5–22.
Giammattei, J., Blix, G., Marshak, H. H., Wollitzer, A. O., & Pettitt, D. J. (2003). Television watching and soft drink consumption: Associations with obesity in 11-to 13-year-old schoolchildren. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 157(9), 882–886.
Gidwani, P. P., Sobol, A., DeJong, W., Perrin, J. M., & Gortmaker, S. L. (2002). Television viewing and initiation of smoking among youth. Pediatrics, 110(3), 505–508.
Guo, Q., Zhou, J., & Feng, L. (2018). Pro-social behavior is predictive of academic success via peer acceptance: A study of Chinese primary school children. Learning and Individual Differences, 65, 187–194.
Hilsman, R., & Garber, J. (1995). A test of the cognitive diathesis-stress model of depression in children: Academic stressors, attributional style, perceived competence, and control. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 69(2), 370–380.
Hu, H., & Yin, Y. (2015). The reflection and advance of reducing primary and secondary school academic burden in China. Global Education(in Chinese), 44(12), 48–95.
Kitsantas, A., Cheema, J., & Ware, H. W. (2011). Mathematics achievement: The role of homework and self-efficacy beliefs. Journal of Advanced Academics, 22(2), 310–339.
Lv, B., Lv, L., Yan, Z., & Luo, L. (2019). The relationship between parental involvement in education and children's academic/emotion profiles: A person-centered approach. Children and Youth Services Review, 100, 175–182.
Marsh, H. W., Lüdtke, O., Trautwein, U., & Morin, A. J. S. (2009). Classical latent profile analysis of academic self-concept dimensions: Synergy of person- and variable-centered approaches to theoretical models of self-concept. Structural Equation Modeling, 16, 191–225.
McNeish, D., Stapleton, L. M., & Silverman, R. D. (2017). On the unnecessary ubiquity of hierarchical linear modeling. Psychological Methods, 22(1), 114–140.
Mischo, C., & Haag, L. (2002). Expansion and effectiveness of private tutoring. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 17(3), 263–273.
Morris, P., & Kalil, A. (2006). Out-of-school time use during middle childhood in a low-income sample: Do combinations of activities affect achievement and behavior? New York: Cambridge University Press.
Obradović, J., Burt, K. B., & Masten, A. S. (2009). Testing a dual cascade model linking competence and symptoms over 20 years from childhood to adulthood. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 39(1), 90–102.
OECD. (2017). Are students happy? pisa 2015 results: students’ well-being. Pisa in Focus.
Paschal, R. A., Weinstein, T., & WAlberg, H. J. W. (1984). The effects of homework on learning: A quantitative synthesis. The Journal of Educational Research, 78(2), 97–104.
Petras, H., & Masyn, K. (2010). General growth mixture analysis with antecedents and consequences of change. In Handbook of quantitative criminology (pp. 69–100). New York: Springer press.
Razel, M. (2001). The complex model of television viewing and educational achievement. The Journal of Educational Research, 94(6), 371–379.
Schafer, J. L., & Graham, J. W. (2002). Missing data: Our view of the state of the art. Psychological Methods, 7, 147–177.
Schreiber, J. B. (2000). Advanced mathematics achievement, unpublished doctoral dissertation. Bloomington: Indiana University.
Shams, T. A., Foussias, G., Zawadzki, J. A., Marshe, V. S., Siddiqui, I., Muller, D. J., & Wong, A. H. C. (2015). The effects of video games on cognition and brain structure: Potential implications for neuropsychiatric disorders. Current Psychiatry Reports, 17(9), 1–15.
Silbereisen, R. K., & Eyferth, K. (1986). Development as action in context. In R. K. Silbereisen, K. Eyferth, & G. Rudinger (Eds.), Development as action in context: Problem behavior and normal youth development (pp. 3–16). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Smyth, E. (2008). The more, the better? Intensity of involvement in private tuition and examination performance. Educational Research and Evaluation, 14(5), 465–476.
Sun, L., Shafiq, M. N., McClure, M., & Guo, S. (2020). Are there educational and psychological benefits from private supplementary tutoring in mainland China? Evidence from the China education panel survey, 2013-15. International Journal of Educational Development, 72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2019.102144.
Thibodeaux, J., Deutsch, A., Kitsantas, A., & Winsler, A. (2017). First-year college students’ time use: Relations with self-regulation and GPA. Journal of Advanced Academics, 28(1), 5–27.
Tofighi, D., & Enders, C. K. (2008). Identifying the correct number of classes in a growth mixture model. In G. R. Hancock (Ed.), Mixture models in latent variable research (pp. 317–341). Greenwich: Information Age Press.
Trautwein, U., Köller, O., Schmitz, B., & Baumert, J. (2002). Do homework assignments enhance achievement? A multilevel analysis in 7th-grade mathematics. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 27(1), 26–50.
Walberg, H. J. (1984). Improving the productivity of America’s schools. Educational Leadership, 41(8), 19–27.
Wang, W., & Li, P. (2015). Psychometric report on cognitive ability test in China education panel survey (CEPS) baseline survey (in Chinese). https://ceps.ruc.edu.cn/assets/admin/org/ueditor/php/upload/20151221/14506963789569.pdf.
Williams, P. A., Haertel, E. H., Haertel, G. D., & Walberg, H. J. (1982). The impact of leisure-time television on school learning: A research synthesis. American Educational Research Journal, 19(1), 19–50.
Xue, H., & Ding, X. (2009). A study on additional instruction for students in cities and towns in China. Educational Research, 348, 39–46 (in Chinese).
Zhang, Y. (2013). Does private tutoring improve students’ National College Entrance Exam performance?—A case study from Jinan, China. Economics of Education Review, 32, 1–28.
Funding
National Science Foundation for Young Scientists of China (71904026) and Youth Fund Projects of Northeast Normal University (1909209). Jilin Province Social Science Fund (2020C081).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical Approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. All procedures in this study were approved by Institutional Review Board of Faculty of Education, Northeast Normal University.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Conflict of Interest
Author Bo Lv declares that he has no conflict of interest. Author Lijie Lv declares that she has no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Lv, B., Lv, L. Out-of-School Activities on Weekdays and Adolescent Adjustment in China: a Person-Centered Approach. Child Ind Res 14, 783–798 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-020-09778-w
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-020-09778-w