Introduction

According to the World Bank (2023), technological adoption has become a key factor for increasing productivity and economic growth, which are decisive for modifying different countries’ labor panoramas. In this way, technological transformation processes cause ultimate changes in how tasks are developed, especially in the skills necessary to carry out activities.

In this way, innovation and technological advances not only increase productivity but also create an environment in which inequalities in income appear, as well as market concentration and a decrease in the participation in the national income of the labor market (World Bank, 2023). Economic dynamics like the previous ones can be faced through critical factors such as adopting new technologies, the impact on the demand for university graduates, and training in skills for technological change. These factors can be achieved with public policies aimed at promoting technological adoption and a better adaptation of technology to the needs of society, especially in the training of the young population in the formation of skills for their adaptation and reinvention.

Rapid technological advancements are accelerating, demanding businesses across diverse sectors to adjust to transformations to stay competitive. This dynamism extends beyond the universal tourism sector, where varied technological progressions are applied to attract a novel clientele. Consequently, the integration of technology, coupled with the engaged role of the customer or vacationer, is giving rise to distinctive and unforgettable travel encounters utilizing virtual innovations (Chou et al., 2022; Yang et al., 2021; Rodríguez-López et al., 2021; Yu et al., 2021; Chan et al., 2022; Wagner et al., 2022; Espejo et al., 2017) such as expanded reality, simulated reality, and three-dimensional printing is on the rise. The notion of value Co-creation is grounded in the idea that clients are not inert recipients of value but rather active contributors in its formulation. Collaborative creation within the travel enterprise can facilitate the crafting of precise and personalized travel involvements that conform to the desires and requirements of individual wanderers (Eletxigerra et al., 2022; Esposito et al., 2021; Wu et al., 2022).

For the tourism sector, the possibility of creating products according to customers’ needs, especially in creating value for them, makes it necessary to use technologies such as virtual and augmented reality to improve customer experience. tourists (Yang & Dai, 2021). In this way, firms in the tourism sector can improve customer experiences by creating value and their commitment to the development of virtual experiences (Yu et al., 2021).

On the other hand, research in the field of tourism and the adoption of new technologies has established some critical lines of development, such as Sustainable tourism (Muthuraman & Al Haziazi, 2019; Pu et al., 2023), technology applications (Buhalis & Moldavska, 2022; Giaccone & Bonacini, 2019; Liu et al., 2022, 2023; Mao et al., 2021; Morosan, 2018; Nöjd et al., 2020; Troisi et al., 2019; Yang et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2018), psychological studies (Eletxigerra et al., 2022; Hilken et al., 2022), consumer studies (Bouchriha et al., 2021; Rachao et al., 2020), innovation (Buhalis et al., 2019).

A central aspect to highlight in this research is the relationship between adaptation to technological platforms, user behavior, and how social factors can impact virtual value co-creation with the moderation of factors such as the mindful approach and technological stress (Cosa, 2023). Firstly, this adaptation occurs especially due to technological developments directly affecting the user experience. In this way, social factors play a fundamental role in the quality of virtual value co-creation (Kusuma et al., 2024). On the other hand, technological stress and the minimal approach come to play a role as both stimulators and inhibitors in the implementation of virtual value co-creation, making possible the adaptation to platforms and the optimization of value-creation processes in virtual environments (Hysa & Themeli, 2022).

Considering previous research, it becomes evident that there are three critical gaps in the intersection of tourism and emerging technologies, such as virtual reality, for co-creating value. Firstly, there is a pressing need for studies that delve into the analysis of platform content, ensuring its alignment with market preferences, thus emphasizing the importance of virtual value co-creation in meeting consumer needs (Yang et al., 2022). Secondly, understanding how platforms adapt to varying conditions for industrial tourism and the role of communication technologies in regional industry development is paramount (Liu et al., 2023). This highlights the significance of virtual value co-creation in fostering innovation and growth across diverse regions. Finally, it is crucial to comprehend how individual behaviors in value co-creation processes interact with brands, products, and platforms to drive success in virtual environments (Hilken et al., 2022; Yang et al., 2022). This underscores the central role of virtual value co-creation in shaping consumer-brand interactions and ensuring the competitiveness of firms in the digital landscape.

Additional research areas in tourism propose methodologies centered on examining users’ rationalities within value co-creation processes (Seifert & Kwon, 2019). Researchers such as Cannas (2018), Lincz et al. (2020), and Notzke (2019) align this research interest with the imperative to investigate individual attributes such as self-assurance, openness to dialogue, and propensity for collaboration. Alternatively, some scholars argue that co-creation is linked to collective endeavors rooted in societal norms (Carvalho et al., 2022). However, these assertions are not grounded in a tourist perspective or virtual reality (Zhang et al., 2015).

In the tourism research area, factors that could impact tourists and their engagement in virtual value co-creation processes include technological stress, which refers to the adverse psychological, physiological, and behavioral reactions to the application or presence of technology. Various factors, such as challenges in technological usability, information overload, and feelings of detachment or isolation from others, can trigger this stress. Technological stress can affect co-creation progression in virtual value co-creation by reducing the inclination or ability to participate in collaborative creative endeavors. Consistent with existing literature in the field, we have identified a gap in research: the need to examine the individual and communal predictors of virtual value co-creation and the role of the mindful approach and technological stress as moderator variables.

According to the above, the research question from which this research arises poses: What are the quadratic effects of the mindful approach and technological stress on the relationship between social factors impacting virtual value co-creation? In this way, this research aims to analyze the quadratic effects of the mindful approach and technological stress in the relationship between social factors (social comparison orientation, loneliness, emotional support, and instrumental support) and virtual value co-creation for the tourism sector.

To achieve the objective of this research, the work has been structured as follows: In the initial part, a brief introduction to the context of the work is made, especially relating the need for studies in virtual value co-creation with the development of firms and their markets. In the second part, the mind-sponge theory perspective is presented, which allows us to analyze how the processes of technological adoption are directly related to the contexts in which they are developed. The third part presents the methodology used for the study and the results and main conclusions of the exercise. In the final part, the study’s main contributions are presented, as well as the limitations and future research lines.

Theoretical framework

The mindsponge theory

Scholars such as Vuong (2023) propose that MindSponge Theory originated from observation and experiences in different fields of knowledge, such as sports psychology, coaching, and personal development. In this way, it was proposed that individuals tend to absorb and process the information they receive from their environment, generating mental barriers or overcoming them to improve performance. The mind sponge theory focuses on trying to explain the mental capacity of an individual to adapt, learn, and grow from a cognitive point of view through different practices such as mindfulness, self-awareness, and cognitive flexibility.

According to authors such as Vuong and Napier (2015), the mind-sponge theory assumes that each person has a set of values and beliefs that are part of an individual’s identity. Through values, people can evaluate the usefulness of information for decision-making. There are three levels (mindset zone, comfort zone, cultural, and ideological zone) from which people can make decisions based on the values inherent to their personality. In the first level, the mindset zone, a set of values and beliefs, is critical in comparing processes (Vuong, 2023). This comparison process allows an individual to make value judgments regarding her actions. The second level is the comfort zone, which protects values from external influences, such as cultural developments or trends that influence people’s behaviors (Levy et al., 2007). As well as the cultural protection process at this second level, there are processes related to integrating, synthesizing, and incorporating information related to an individual’s values (Vuong, 2022).

According to Vuong and Napier (2014), when information enters the comfort zone, a filtering mechanism is created to incorporate information that aligns with an individual’s values. This process allows us to manage a perception of cost–benefit, thus allowing us to accept or reject emerging values. The closer the information is to the set of values, the more it will allow the development of a strict evaluation and filter. On the other hand, the membranes from which information passes between the different levels allow the evaluation of the values and the directing toward a set of emerging values related to the individual.

Finally, at the third level are the culture and ideological values that can be accepted by a community of which an individual is a part (Vuong & Napier, 2015). The above statement is based on the idea that an individual should naturally know values and beliefs, regardless of whether they are new or comfortable. Likewise, the individual will be in permanent conflict with the values and beliefs of a cultural context that tries to absorb him. The above examples are different religions, political parties, and social groups.

These three levels together allow us to identify the key factors that form an intention to make particular use of technology. An important aspect to mention about the mind sponge theory in comparison with other perspectives, such as the T.A.M. (Technology acceptance model) among others is that it allows us to identify the filtering mechanisms that the human mind performs in the incorporation of new inputs, such as values, ideas, and especially new information technologies. The model proposed by the mind sponge theory considers the ease of use of new technology as an act of trust evaluation, a perception that ultimately increases trust in the use of technology and determines the levels of acceptance that perspectives such as T.A.M. propose.

According to the above, the mind accepts or rejects any input of factors that influence the adaptation to the external values necessary in adopting innovations related to the culture and the value systems immersed in it (Vuong, 2016). It is necessary to mention that virtual value co-creation, as a process carried out through virtual platforms in a social context, differs from the set of values established in a society. From the point of view of mind sponge theory, co-creation is influenced by a set of psychological and social factors that allow us to understand the factors that influence virtual creation processes.

According to scholars such as Lu et al. (2023), the mind-sponge theory facilitates the assessment of new values that influence individual behaviors, including those arising from the value co-creation process. This perspective also enables examining decision-making processes associated with technological innovation and behaviors related to risk and innovation. In essence, the mind-sponge perspective illuminates how individuals continually exchange information with their environment, undergoing a perpetual process of exclusion and absorption. Through this process, individuals interpret their surroundings and adapt their behaviors accordingly (Nguyen et al., 2021).

Additionally, adopting new technologies often hinges on their perceived value to individuals or organizations. When assessing technology adoption, individuals weigh the potential benefits against the costs involved, considering factors such as efficiency, convenience, and the ability to fulfill their needs or achieve their goals (Mantello et al., 2023). This cost–benefit evaluation influences their decision-making processes and determines their willingness to adopt and integrate new technologies into their lives or operations. Thus, the mind-sponge theory provides a framework for understanding how individuals navigate and respond to the introduction of technological innovations within their environments (Huang et al., 2022).

An essential element to highlight is that the mind sponge theory maintains that individuals have mechanisms that filter the entry of new values, ideas, or the use of new technologies. The above is based on the idea that confidence in using new technologies can be increased as long as ease of use becomes a determinant in the acceptance of technology (Mantello et al., 2023). This previous idea is because people’s minds reject or accept according to their adaptation ability, which will be according to external circumstances such as culture and society (Huang et al., 2022; Vuong et al., 2021).

A contribution of this research lies in relating the elements of the mind sponge theory to understanding the factors that affect the adoption of new technologies. According to the above, much of the current effort that must be made in the field of mind sponge theory is in the analysis of sample sizes and population groups that allow us to understand the dispositions and motivations of individuals in the adoption of new technologies (Huang et al., 2022). Another essential aspect of carrying out within the mind sponge theory is the need to investigate both positive and negative emotions that allow us to investigate the role of the belief system in resilience and the management of anxiety and stressors (Vuong, 2023).

Regarding the relationship between the mind sponge theory and the variables under study, it is necessary to consider that the mind sponge theory states that each individual has a set of values from which they interact with other people from which the relationships are sustained between the theory and the concepts used in the research. Firstly, the Social Comparison Orientation proposed by Vogel et al. (2015) determines that individuals develop in themselves a need to establish social comparison processes that make them commit to social activities; in this way, the individual carries out his comparison process with other individuals, based on absorption of the values related to their online environment as proposed by the mind sponge theory.

In the case of loneliness, authors such as Nowland et al. (2018) and Shakya and Christakis (2017) define the feeling of loneliness as going hand in hand with the increase in the use of social networks. In this way, it is suggested that individuals with a high degree of loneliness spend more time using social media, aligning with the notion that the individual absorbs information and is influenced by online interactions that alleviate their social isolation.

Scholars such as Rains and Wright (2016) propose that individuals need to seek and receive emotional support through social platforms. This process is consistent with the mind-sponge theory, which demonstrates that individuals often seek and receive emotional support through online platforms. This supports the idea that individuals absorb emotional support from their online environment, which is consistent with the MindSponge Theory’s proposition.

Regarding instrumental support

Research by (Pensa et al., 2019) how online communities can provide instrumental support to individuals facing various challenges. The above idea goes hand in hand with the fact that individuals absorb practical help from interactions on online platforms. The Mindful Approach proposed by scholars such as Brown and Ryan (2003) and Tran et al. (2014) is based on the idea that mindfulness in virtual environments suggests that individuals with a mindful approach may exhibit more positive online experiences. This supports the notion that individuals who mindfully approach online interactions are more selective in what they absorb from their virtual environment, as the MindSponge Theory proposes.

Based on the studies of Elhai et al. (2017), Technological Stress examines the impact of technological stress on individuals’ well-being in the context of digital technology use. This supports the idea that individuals experiencing technological stress may still absorb information and influences from their online environment. However, the impact on their well-being and behavior could be more detrimental. Similarly, it is the case of virtual Value Co-creation. Seminal authors such as Prahalad and Ramaswamy (2004) and Nambisan and Baron (2009) have discussed the concept of virtual value co-creation, highlighting the collaborative creation of value in online environments. This supports the notion that individuals actively absorb and contribute to value-creation processes in virtual interactions. In summary, these scholarly papers provide empirical evidence and theoretical frameworks that support the relationships between social comparison orientation, loneliness, emotional support, instrumental support, mindful approach, technological stress, virtual value co-creation, and the concepts proposed by the MindSponge Theory.

Finally, it is essential to note that the mind sponge theory defines some basic principles to evaluate the value system and its influence on the behavior of individuals. The first principle states that the information must be in the individual’s mind and processed in the individual. The second states that the information process is based on the trust of the evaluator and the constant subjective benefit. Third, the multifiltering carried out by an individual depends on the value system in which a person operates. Fourth, conscious and subconscious mental processes are subject to the values of the individuals. Finally, the fifth refers to the fact that the information coming from the environment must be perceptible in the mind in a subjective way. Thus, the mind sponge theory offers an adequate perspective to understand the processes of assimilation and rejection of values that individuals can do, especially in the process of value creation, especially when there is the intermediation of a technology (Jeong, 2023).

From a theoretical perspective, the MindSponge Theory provides valuable insights into enhancing performance through mental factors but faces criticism from scholars. Some argue that the theory’s focus on individual mindset and mental techniques might oversimplify complex performance issues, overlooking broader systemic or environmental factors (Santirocchi et al., 2023). Critics suggest that the theory’s exclusive emphasis on internal factors may undermine the significance of external influences like social context, organizational culture, and structural barriers (Huang et al., 2023). Furthermore, skeptics question the empirical evidence supporting the effectiveness of MindSponge techniques beyond sports coaching (Jin et al., 2023). These criticisms highlight the importance of a nuanced understanding of performance enhancement, considering internal and external influences. Research indicates that the mind sponge theory adapts to its environment by continuously absorbing and filtering information, aiming to understand better how environmental factors shape behavior (Lue et al., 2023).

Mindsponge theory and value co-creation in the tourism industry

According to (Assiouras et al., 2023), the dominant service has developed lines of research of great interest in tourism, particularly in how it is possible to create value considering tourists and for the tourist. This co-creation of value refers to how the consumer assumes active work to carry out activities that create value through co-construction. In this way, when technology such as virtual platforms mediates, the consumer tends to increase their expectations and create the need to improve their skills to participate in co-creation processes (Buhalis et al., 2020; Zwick et al., 2008). According to the above, for scholars such as Blazquez-Resino et al. (2015), co-creation has become an ideal means for developing competitive advantage, especially for the tourism industry.

An important aspect that stands out in this research is the need to continue investigating the role of emotions in value co-creation processes with empirical research (Tu et al., 2018). For authors such as Björk P. (2014), Consumer experiences are influenced by the need for pleasure and hedonic behavior that leads tourists to a permanent search for enjoyment and happiness. The above suggests that the experience will be loaded with emotions whose context must be carefully studied, given the factors and value systems that impact the user experience (Cannas et al., 2019).

Consumer experiences are influenced by the need for pleasure and hedonic behavior, leading tourists to a permanent search for enjoyment and happiness. The above suggests that the experience will be loaded with emotions whose context must be carefully studied, given the factors and value systems that impact the user experience (Assiouras et al., 2023).

Social factors in the virtual value co-creation process

One of the social factors that allows us to understand social relations as a multifaceted process is social comparison orientation (Gibbons & Buunk, 1999; Moffitt, 2024). As a process, social comparison is identified as a cognitive process deeply related to the mind-sponge perspective. Since it influences the individual’s participation in communities, like in this case, virtual co-creation value (Allan & Gilbert, 1995), individuals with a high orientation towards social comparison may be more susceptible to external influences, thus generating behavior that allows them to contribute to virtual communities.

According to scholars such as Gibbons and Buunk (1999), social comparison orientation can involve a nature with two targets: higher and lower. This evaluation process usually occurs through strengths, power, attractiveness, and talent. In a social environment, an individual may engage in physical coordination comparisons to reduce his unfavorable comparison to others. Likewise, this type of orientation can also be used to compare oneself with superior individuals through whom one tries to persist in achieving such characteristics (Feltz et al., 2020). This previous idea is how, to the extent of a strong social comparison orientation, it will generate the conditions for an individual to participate in processes of virtual value co-creation. In this way, the following hypothesis is proposed:

  • H1. Social comparison has a direct effect on virtual value co-creation.

The case of loneliness is conceived as an emotion within the mind sponge theory that can intervene in the dynamics of the co-creation of virtual value. In this way, individuals experiencing loneliness may seek virtual engagements to alleviate their emotions, thus highlighting the need for emotional support, especially in digital spaces. Emotional support becomes a key component from the mind sponge theory’s perspective since it relieves loneliness, boosts the sense of community, and contributes positively to the collaborative effort in virtual value co-creation.

According to Mellinger et al. (2023), loneliness is an experience in which a person cannot achieve their level of social need in quality or quantity. It is essential to highlight that belonging is the opposite of loneliness since it affects the need and experience of belonging to a social group. Individuals with a low need to belong to social groups have a low tendency toward loneliness. Individuals with a high need for group belonging tend to maintain permanent social contact with others (Hawkley & Cacioppo, 2010).

In this way, loneliness, being an emotion, and its low presence will allow the development of a better level of well-being, given the social need to interact with other individuals. Thus, to the extent that a person has low loneliness, they tend to have a satisfied social need that will increase their sense of belonging and thus improve their participation in virtual value co-creation processes (Mellinger et al., 2023). According to the above, the following hypothesis is proposed:

  • H2. Loneliness has a direct effect on virtual value co-creation.

In the case of instrumental support, it could be considered another dimension of the mind sponge because it is established as a resource that allows individuals to develop exchanges to undertake collaborative actions. The skill of instrumental support not only enhances an individual’s capabilities but also contributes to overall effectiveness in initiatives related to virtual value co-creation. According to scholars such as Schiltz et al. (2023), instrumental support includes all types of assistance and tasks related to the care of an individual, such as health care, empathy, and kindness. Instrumental support is considered an important source of emotional support directly related to people’s well-being. Therefore, to the extent that an individual has a better emotional condition, this will generate a stronger well-being condition that becomes a predictor for participating in virtual co-creation processes (Cui et al., 2022). In this way, the following hypothesis is proposed:

  • H3. Instrumental support has a direct effect on virtual value co-creation.

Different external factors that have multiple domains influence an individual’s behavior. These domains can be related to education, family, individual and social factors that permanently challenge an individual’s emotions. In this way, emotional support becomes a vital predictor of the externalization of behavioral problems and the potential mental health of an individual. Studies in the field have shown that emotional support also tends to have variations in how it is developed since it will depend on the gender and social conditions of the person (Zhu et al., 2023).

On the other hand, emotional support is also related to the provision of attention and tools that lead a person to motivate themselves to develop specific activities that allow them to achieve a goal (Shirokova et al., 2023). In this way, emotional support is beneficial in the initial stages of an activity since it influences not only the identity of an individual but also other spaces of everyday life (Klyver et al., 2018). Despite the above, emotional support can cause negative behaviors over time, mainly due to conflicts that can develop in interactions with others (Ulucan & Yavuz, 2019). In this way, the following hypothesis is proposed:

  • H4. Emotional support has a direct effect on virtual value co-creation.

Likewise, the mind sponge theory recognizes technological stress as a negative psychological and physiological response to adopting a technology, which will negatively impact the experiences related to the co-creation of virtual value (Adeniji & Igarashi, 2022). In this way, technological stress becomes essential to positively sustaining the digital collaboration environment. On the other hand, technological stress considers not only the management of technology at work but also compromises the use of hardware, software, or virtual collaboration platforms, resources that, for firms, become critical in implementing corporate strategies (Adeniji & Igarashi, 2022). Despite the above being an element that influences the strategy, technological stress could show decreasing behavior in the future (Tarafdar et al., 2007). The above is because, to the extent that technology is implemented, constant use will allow the development of skills over time, making technological stress increasingly less influential in activities related to technological platforms (Tarafdar et al., 2011). According to the above, the following hypothesis is proposed:

  • H5. Technological stress has a positive quadratic relationship with virtual value co-creation.

In addition to the above, the mind sponge theory highlights the importance of the mindful approach, given that individuals who adopt mindfulness practices show awareness and commitment to the need to improve communication, reduce conflict, and thus generate an overall positive impact on the processes of virtual value co-creation (Dutt et al., 2018). The mindful approach considers a specific emphasis on data handling linked to a sense of positivity (Scheier & Carver, 1985). This individual approach enables the formation of conduct that eases an uneasy encounter, concentrating on accomplishing utter tranquility to confront the potential hindrances that might emerge and are grounded in a specific manner in the occurrences of a moment or everyday life. This preceding situation is how the utilization of simulated platforms necessitates a form of proficiency to utilize this interaction medium not solely with precise content but also interactions with other individuals that can impact the degree of contentment and dedication to engage in value co-creation undertakings.

In line with Engström et al. (2023), the processes of creating value, encompassing the engagement of the involved factions, are crucial for executing mindfulness approaches that permit the establishment of an atmosphere of reliance and notably an atmosphere amenable to the cooperation of work squads. This constituent is essential to grasping the mechanics of consumer assemblies so that they can contribute to value co-creation goals, especially by exchanging experiences and crucial feedback for the corporation (Parkinson et al., 2021). Despite the above, the mindful approach tends to vary over time. Therefore, its effect will tend to decrease behavior because it will require more significant stimuli for its implementation, especially in collaborative processes such as the co-creation of virtual value (Escandon-Barbosa et al., 2021). According to the above, the following hypothesis is proposed:

  • H6: The mindful approach has a positive quadratic effect on virtual value co-creation.

Finally, the relationship between social comparison orientation, loneliness, emotional support, instrumental support, technological stress, mindful approach, and the co-creation of virtual value can be explained from the mind sponge theory because it provides an understanding of virtual collaboration and the improvement of both the effectiveness and sustainability of collaborative efforts concerning virtual environments (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1
figure 1

Conceptual model. The Quadratic effects of the Mindful approach and technological stress

Full size image

Methodology

Data

The present study has been prepared to employ an organized stratified random sample approach, focusing on 400 Colombian visitors in the 18–65 age range. The decision to target Colombian visitors aged 18–65 is in line with the study’s aims regarding virtual value co-creation for various reasons. Firstly, this age group includes a wide range of individuals likely to participate in online activities and virtual interactions, essential to creating value in virtual environments. Individuals in the younger age group (18–35) frequently adopt new technologies and platforms at an early stage. They actively engage in online communities, social networks, and virtual experiences. Given their expertise and flexibility of use with digital tools, they are instrumental participants in virtual value co-creation initiatives. Additionally, individuals in the 36–65 age group have substantial involvement with online platforms, especially in the last decade due to the digitalization of all parts of life. Their involvement in virtual value co-creation activities contributes a variety of viewpoints, experiences, and insights, enhancing the collaborative process.

According to the National Administrative Directorate of Statistics, Colombia’s population is estimated to reach 51.6 million individuals, with women accounting for 51.2% and males comprising 48.8% of the total population. This distribution indicates a gender ratio of around 105 women for every 100 men. Colombia’s population in 2022 displayed a varied educational background, with 35.0% having completed secondary education and 18.8% having completed primary education. This indicates the significant presence of basic educational qualifications. In addition, 5.8% of individuals successfully finished high school, 7.8% obtained technical professional certifications, and 3.7% followed technology education, demonstrating different degrees of specialized abilities and competencies. Furthermore, a notable 12.2% of individuals achieved university degrees, highlighting the significance of tertiary education credentials in the job market. In addition, 4.0% of individuals possessed postgraduate qualifications, indicating the presence of a group of highly educated professionals who contribute to the knowledge economy. Nevertheless, 12.0% of individuals indicated that they had not received any formal education, indicating ongoing difficulties in accessing education.

Based on this survey, 68% of participants stated that they mostly use public transportation for their trips to work. Among these respondents, buses were the preferred form of transportation for 42% of them. In addition, 25% of individuals preferred other alternative systems, whereas only 3% utilized trains for everyday travel. On the other hand, just 22% of participants reported using their vehicles for traveling, indicating a substantial dependence on public transportation alternatives. The supplementary information indicates that out of the individuals who use public transit, 56% identified affordability as the primary determinant affecting their choice of transportation, while convenience was named by 24% and environmental concerns by 12%.

Each survey instrument has been carefully constructed to collect precise data, having an approximate response rate of 94.5%. Collecting primary data involves conducting in-depth interviews in five strategically selected urban centers: Bogotá, Cali, Medellín, Barranquilla, and Cartagena.

The choice to employ a sample size of 400 visitors in our investigation is based on careful consideration of statistical rigor, practical feasibility, and the principle of universality in sampling procedures. Firstly, a sample size of 400 visitors is commonly acknowledged to meet the statistical requirements for being representative and generalizable to the bigger population, as determined by principles of inferential statistics. Furthermore, this sample size provides a practical balance between the requirement for a complete representation of the entire population in Colombia and the technical limitations associated with collecting information, especially over ten years. Furthermore, the choice of 400 visitors adheres to recognized principles in sampling theory, where this sample size is considered adequate to ensure both statistical reliability and practical manageability in survey research. Therefore, by following this established sample size, we guarantee our results’ strength and reliability while ensuring that our study can be carried out practically.

The temporal aspect of data collecting, including for the years 2021 and 2022, is essential for comprehending the influence of COVID-19 on tourism dynamics. Data collection for the year 2021 occurred in December. However, it is essential to mention that tourism numbers rebounded after July 2021. This temporal location provides a distinct chance to evaluate both the immediate effects of the pandemic on tourism behaviors and the eventual path to recovery. Data collection for 2022 also occurred in December, but there were significant variations in COVID-19. According to official data from Colombia, the impact of COVID-19 has significantly decreased at this point, indicating a more stable and normalized tourism situation.

Measures

To develop this research, participants registered each item on a Likert-type scale of 1 to 7 (strongly disagree to agree strongly). Below is an expanded explanation of the scales used in this study:

  • The social comparison scale, inspired by researchers such as Gibbons and Buunk (1999), consists of eleven items to measure a social’s orientation toward social comparison. Participants are asked to rate how strongly they agree or disagree with each statement on a five-point scale from “I disagree strongly” to “I agree strongly.” The frequency and types of social comparisons in relationships, accomplishments, social skills, and problem-solving are all examined in these assertions. The scale includes positive and reverse-coded statements to represent the complexity of people’s inclinations to compare themselves to others. A detailed picture of participants’ social comparison orientation may be obtained by analyzing their replies to these questions, providing insight into the type and degree of comparison processes they participate in across various domains.

  • Russel et al. (1977) created a loneliness scale with 20 items. Each item is rated on a four-point scale: frequently, sometimes, seldom, and never. The quotes cover various topics related to social isolation and loneliness. Feelings of loneliness, a lack of company, the idea that one is not understood, waiting for other people to communicate, and the inability to reach out to others are among the things on the list.

  • The emotional and instrumental support scales are two comprehensive measures that Mathieu et al. (2019) created to evaluate essential aspects of assistance in a work environment. In measuring characteristics like encouragement, empathy, and good interpersonal dynamics, the emotional support scale seeks to quantify people’s subjective workplace experiences. Items in this scale inquire about the supply of emotional support and encouragement, sharing personal concerns with mentors, and the strength obtained from coworkers throughout hard workdays. The measure also looks at having constructive interactions at work, getting praise and approval from colleagues, and expressing empathy for others’ worries and emotions.

  • On the other hand, the instrumental support scale created by Mathieu et al. (2019) emphasizes material support and tools that help people perform better at work and advance their careers. This measure evaluates the usefulness of support in the workplace, such as exchanging professional development opportunities, work-related information, and concrete help from mentors or colleagues. This scale’s items question chances to acquire specialized functional skills, access to knowledge and guidance that makes work duties more accessible, and constructive criticism on job performance. The measure also assesses advantageous training recommendations and career progression advice and helps with work-related problem-solving. This tool offers a systematic method to measure the instrumental help people receive in their work environments, using a Likert-type scale that ranges from unsuitable to required.

  • Additionally, our research is centered on comprehending the mindful approach; we utilize the Evolved Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (E-FFMQ) to achieve this. This 39-item test, carefully divided into five categories, is a sophisticated tool for exploring the various aspects of mindfulness. Participants indicate how often they identify with each statement using a Likert-type scale from 1 to 5. The comprehensive framework of the E-FFMQ, which assigns 8 to 9 questions to each aspect, thoroughly examines multiple aspects of mindfulness and establishes a solid framework for our research.

  • We utilize the 12-item technology Stress (T.S.) Scale is a tool created to evaluate several aspects of technology stress to figure out this complex connection. Participants describe their experiences on a 7-point Likert scale, including anything from difficulties with technology to worries about security and privacy to experiencing technological overload. Validated by extensive research, the T.S.D. Scale is a reliable instrument for measuring the complex stresses related to contemporary technology.

  • Finally, the Value co-creation scale presents seven dimensions that define the essence of co-creation, and it is adapted from Escandon-Barbosa et al. (2021). This scale reflects the complexity of value co-creation, from individual participation and feedback to power significance. This scale offers a perspective to see the collaborative dynamics in businesses, especially those with a networked structure or a consumer-centric orientation.

Model

Using a dynamic structural equation model (DSEM) to analyze longitudinal data from a cohort of 400 tourists requires discussion regarding its superiority compared to other approaches. The use of DSEM has significant benefits, especially in its capacity to accurately depict the evolving nature of relationships over a period of time. DSEM offers a detailed comprehension of how constructs develop and interact in the context of tourism behavior by considering changes and variations in variables over several time points. Furthermore, DSEM facilitates the analysis of temporal dynamics, allowing researchers to find complex patterns and causal relationships that static models could miss. Therefore, the choice to employ DSEM shows a careful evaluation of the time-related aspect of the research questions and the inherent data properties found in longitudinal research.

A Dynamic Structural Equation Model (DSEM) is a mathematical framework that explains how variables change over time in fluctuating conditions. It consists of formulas incorporating multiple dynamic processes, such as persistent time series modeling, stochastic modeling of external reactions, and structural modeling of issues. DSEM is essential for analyzing how variables change and interact over time when used in various academic fields, including sociology, psychology, and economics. The model uses differential equations to account for the dynamic character of interactions effectively. At Level 1, it indicates a virtual value co-creation relationship that describes the temporal evolution inside its framework. Level 2 measures the parameters’ means, including fixed effects, subject variability (variances of u), and the amounts of time-varying fluctuations. Level 3, which provides an in-depth overview of the environmental interconnections of the model, finally includes relationships with external and internal elements.

The equations within the DSEM framework can be outlined as follows:

  • Level 1: Virtual Value Co-creation Relationship over Time

$$\text{VVC}(\text{t})=\text{f}(\text{x},\text{y},\text{t})\text{VVC}(\text{t})=\text{f}(\text{x},\text{y},\text{t})$$

Here:

V.V.C. (t) V.V.C. (t):

denotes the virtual value co-creation at time tt.

xx and yy:

represent pertinent variables influencing virtual value co-creation.

tt:

signifies time (ranging from 1 to 9, corresponding to measurement times for consumers in the virtual reality market).

  • Level 2: Means of the Parameters u = g(β0i,β1i,…)u = g(β0i,β1i,…)

Where:

uu:

stands for a parameter associated with subject variability (variation over time) and magnitudes of fluctuations.

β0iβ0i and β1iβ1i:

are coefficients representing each variable and the linear growth rate specific to the virtual reality market ii.

  • Level 3: Relationships with Internal and External Factors R = h(m,n,p,…)R = h(m,n,p,…)

Where:

R.R.:

embodies the relationships of the model with internal and external factors.

m,n,p,…m,n,p,…:

are internal and external factors influencing the virtual value co-creation relationship over time.

Results

We employed a rigorous statistical methodology to guarantee the reliability and precision of our measurement scales. The assessment of convergent validity involved the analysis of Cronbach’s alpha, with particular emphasis given to values above 0.7, which indicate a robust level of internal consistency. In addition, we focused on establishing Average Extracted Variance (AVE) values that exceeded 0.5, which is consistent with the standards specified by Anderson and Gerbing (1998). This improves the reliability and validity of our measurement scales. The reliability of our scales was further confirmed by the significant t-values obtained, increasing our data’s overall validity. This rigorous and systematic process ensures that our scales are reliable and precise representations of the studied concepts.

The discriminant validity was carefully examined to confirm the uniqueness of each component. By calculating confidence intervals for every combination of constructions, we verified that no value of “1” was present. The absence of overlap between constructs confirms their autonomy, reinforcing our measuring scales’ individuality. The statistical analysis we performed on the complete sample produced the following results: χ2 = 450.78; RMSEA = 0.072; CFI = 0.91; TLI = 0.89; and SRMR = 0.071.

Using a Dynamic Structural Equation Model (DSEM), we analyzed to figure out the complicated interactions between various components. With a high Goodness of Fit Index (G.F.I.) of 0.93 and an Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI) of 0.92, the best model (Model 1) showed a strong fit. The Root Mean Square Residual (R.M.R.) demonstrated the model’s fit, which registered at 0.035 and showed an excellent fit between the original and recreated variance–covariance matrices.

Positive results from our convergence study were obtained, particularly a Potential Scale Reduction (P.S.R.) of 0.921, which indicates that the model is close to convergence and that further iterations might improve it. With a value of 0.024, the Deviation Information Criterion (D.I.C.) converges to zero, indicating the model’s solid fit and adequate explanatory ability.

Our main analysis examined the time dynamics of virtual value co-creation (V.V.C.). The change in V.V.C. over time has been demonstrated to tend to increase, demonstrated by the slope coefficient of 2.35 (S.E. = 0.055, p = 0.013, 95% CI [1.212, 2.215]), which shows a statistically significant positive correlation. For V.V.C., the long-term coefficient was 1.41 (S.E. = 0.341, p = 0.000, 95% CI [1.121, 1.865]), indicating a somewhat reduced but statistically significant positive correlation over a long period.

The analysis of the mindful approach revealed a quadratic relationship with virtual value co-creation for the long term. The coefficient for the quadratic term was 3.231 (S.E. = 1.512, p = 0.020, 95% CI [3.111, 3.823). This quadratic relationship signifies that the influence of the mindful approach on virtual value co-creation is not linear over time. The positive coefficient implies an evolving and nuanced relationship with potential implications for sustained engagement.

Finally, the analysis confirmed a quadratic relationship between Technological Stress (T.S.) and Virtual Value Co-Creation for the long term. The coefficient for the quadratic term was 1.542 (S.E. = 2.230, p = 0.025, 95% CI [1.312, 1.912]). This result indicates that the impact of technological stress on co-creation activities is a complex linear progression. The positive coefficient suggests a more complex interplay over time, highlighting potential shifts in the relationship (Table 1).

Table 1 Results
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Graph 1 represents the quadratic relationship between the mindful method and virtual value co-creation over time. In this relationship, it is confirmed that the mindful approach generates positive results for the virtual value co-creation that accumulates over time. The positive quadratic coefficient indicates that once people develop experience in virtual value co-creation, the advantages of the mindful approach may increase. This last idea may indicate a learning curve when people benefit significantly from mindfulness and progressively experience more advantages over time. Long-term positive impacts of mindfulness may be linked to users’ improved skill in exploring challenging virtual environments, which leads to more beneficial and significant contributions to virtual value co-creation.

Graph 1
figure 2

Mindful approach to virtual value co-creation

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However, high levels of technological stress are associated with reduced participation in virtual value co-creation activities because of everything like feeling stressed by technology, feeling disconnected or alone because of problems, thinking that time and effort are being lost, and adverse emotional reactions like worry or frustration (See Graph 2).

Graph 2
figure 3

Technological stress on virtual value Co-creation

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Discussion

Our study advances the understanding of virtual value co-creation dynamics within the tourism industry, exploring the intricate relationships between individual and social antecedents, the mindful approach, technological stress, and the overarching framework of Mindsponge theory. The confirmed results provide nuanced insights into how these factors collectively shape and influence virtual value co-creation experiences.

First, our findings are consistent with Hypothesis 1 (H1), showing that social comparison orientation directly impacts virtual value co-creation. People with heightened social comparison orientation are more likely to actively participate in virtual communities because of their propensity to compare their abilities, abilities, power, beauty, and ability with others.

Our results support Hypothesis 2 (H2), which postulated a direct association between loneliness and virtual value co-creation. Decreased feelings of loneliness correlate with higher participation in virtual value co-creation, highlighting emotional health’s critical role in promoting pleasant relationships in digital environments. Similarly, our findings corroborate Hypothesis 3 (H3), which proposed a direct relationship between instrumental assistance and virtual value co-creation. People who get helpful guidance and resources are more likely to make valuable contributions to cooperative activities in the virtual world. Hypothesis 4 (H4), which highlights the importance of emotional elements, suggested that emotional support directly impacts virtual value co-creation. Our results validate this link. Support from others on an emotional level benefits well-being and encourages involvement in virtual value co-creation.

The hypothesis (H5) introduced the factor of technical stress and proposed a positive quadratic link between virtual value co-creation and it. Our findings show that technological stress initially has a favorable effect on co-creation but gradually decreases as people get more adept at utilizing technology. The positive quadratic coefficient suggests an evolving and nuanced relationship between mindfulness and co-creation over the long term. This finding aligns with the works of Dutt et al. (2018) and Engström et al. (2023), highlighting the cognitive strategy’s role in enhancing concentration and attentiveness. Businesses should consider the evolving nature of consumers’ mindful engagement, tailoring strategies to facilitate sustained and adaptable participation in virtual value co-creation.

Finally, the attentive method has a positive quadratic influence on virtual value co-creation, according to Hypothesis 6 (H6). Our results corroborate this theory by showing that a mindful approach has a beneficial but short-lived effect on participation in virtual value co-creation. According to the mind sponge theory, future behavior related to technological stress may decrease (Tarafdar et al., 2007). This previous condition is explained by people’s adaptability, which enables skill growth over time due to constant technology use. It is anticipated that technical stress will less impact activities involving these platforms as people get better at using them (Tarafdar et al., 2011).

Conclusion

In conclusion, our study significantly advances the understanding of virtual value co-creation dynamics within the tourism industry, elucidating the complex interplay between individual and social antecedents, the mindful approach, technological stress, and the overarching framework of Mindsponge theory. The confirmed results provide nuanced insights into how these factors collectively shape and influence virtual value co-creation experiences.

Consistent with our hypotheses, social comparison orientation, loneliness, instrumental assistance, and emotional support all demonstrated direct associations with virtual value co-creation, highlighting the importance of social and emotional factors in fostering engagement within digital communities.

Furthermore, our findings revealed a quadratic relationship between technological stress and virtual value co-creation, indicating an evolving dynamic that initially enhances participation but diminishes over time as individuals adapt to technology use. This previous idea underscores the need for businesses to recognize the evolving nature of consumer engagement and tailor strategies accordingly.

Similarly, the mindful approach exhibited a positive quadratic influence on virtual value co-creation, suggesting a beneficial but short-lived effect that diminishes as individuals become more adept at utilizing technology. This last result aligns with previous research and underscores the importance of adaptability in the digital landscape. Our study underscores the importance of considering individual, social, and technological factors in shaping virtual value co-creation experiences. By understanding these dynamics, businesses can develop tailored strategies to foster sustained and adaptable participation in virtual communities, ultimately enhancing value creation and customer engagement in the tourism industry.

Theoretical contributions

The study contributes to understanding virtual value co-creation in the tourism and travel industry. It enriches established theoretical frameworks by investigating the intricate connections between individual and social antecedents, the mindful approach, technological stress, and the MindSponge Theory. Of particular significance is the discovery of quadratic effects within the study variables. The longitudinal examination of consumer behavior demonstrates individual characteristics’ persistent influence over time while revealing a subtle link between the mindful approach and virtual value co-creation. This finding underscores the complex nature of mindfulness development in co-creation experiences.

Furthermore, identifying a negative quadratic relationship between technological stress and virtual value co-creation challenges simplistic linear assumptions. This nuanced understanding sheds light on how technology impacts consumer participation, emphasizing the importance of considering non-linear effects in research and practice. Overall, the study’s exploration of quadratic effects adds depth and complexity to our understanding of virtual value co-creation dynamics, enhancing the relevance and applicability of the findings in real-world contexts.

Practical implications

By understanding the intricate socio-cultural and political dynamics highlighted in this study, organizations in the tourism sector can leverage practical insights to enhance their operational strategies in virtual environments. Customizing initiatives to individual preferences for social comparison fosters community engagement while navigating the complex socio-cultural intricacies of virtual community participation, which is crucial in diverse contexts.

Prioritizing emotional well-being involves implementing programs that resonate with participants’ socio-cultural backgrounds and acknowledging diverse emotional experiences influenced by user demographics. Addressing sociopolitical issues affecting resource accessibility is vital for instrumental aid, requiring sensitivity to regional dynamics. Creating a supportive environment sensitive to socio-cultural and political contexts is paramount for offering adequate emotional support. This includes understanding how political climates and cultural norms shape emotional expression in virtual spaces.

Dealing with technological stress necessitates adaptable approaches considering users’ varying technological literacy and regional disparities in technology regulations and infrastructure. Integrating mindfulness practices requires recognizing their socio-cultural impacts and designing programs that promote a balanced approach to technology use, considering political and cultural perspectives. Additionally, by identifying the quadratic effects of variables, firms can refine their strategies to better align with the subtle relationships between these factors. This understanding allows for more targeted interventions and tailored approaches to address specific challenges and capitalize on opportunities within virtual environments.

Limitations and future research

While this study offers valuable insights into tourism-related firms, it is crucial to acknowledge its limitations. Firstly, reliance on self-reported data may introduce response bias and subjective interpretations. The narrow focus on specific socio-cultural and political contexts also limits generalizability to a broader global environment. Given the dynamic nature of socio-cultural aspects, the results’ applicability may diminish over time. Moreover, the study primarily concentrates on virtual value co-creation within the travel and tourism sector, potentially limiting relevance to other industries.

Future research could explore new methodologies and theoretical perspectives to address these limitations. For example, employing mixed-method approaches combining quantitative and qualitative interviews could provide richer insights into virtual value co-creation dynamics. Longitudinal studies utilizing methods such as panel data analysis or event history analysis could assess the long-term effectiveness of customized strategies and capture evolving socio-cultural factors. Exploring the impact of emerging technologies, such as virtual reality or artificial intelligence, on digital value co-creation could offer novel insights into consumer behavior and engagement.

Furthermore, comparative analyses of virtual approaches across different industries could identify commonalities and differences in co-creation practices. Incorporating cross-cultural frameworks, such as Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory, could help contextualize findings within diverse socio-cultural contexts. Additionally, network analysis methodologies could be utilized to examine the role of social networks and online communities in facilitating virtual value co-creation, providing a more holistic understanding of digital engagement dynamics. Likewise, it is necessary to carry out studies that allow us to understand the mechanisms on which the interactions identified in the present research, especially between the mindful approach, the technological stress, and the social participation, to understand the different combinations and the effects on the virtual value co-creation.