Introduction

Mental health is an integral resource for athletes aiming to reach the pinnacle of their professional pursuits and sustain happiness in their personal lives. In recent years, the proliferation of Internet technologies has magnified the media and public attention on athletes’ sporting activities and personal lives. Over the years, the involvement of young athletes in various sporting events has been highly encouraging and appreciable. However, the burden of highly competitive environments is affecting the psychological balance of the athletes. This is due to various factors including parental pressure, fear of failure, coaching culture, and socio-economic status. If the athletes fail to manage the monumental expectations put forth by external stakeholders, mental health issues are inevitable in most situations. The need for addressing depression, stress, and anxiety among young athletes is highly crucial for developing congenial training and active participation in high-profile competitions. Though the research on mental illness among adolescent athletes is gaining momentum, extensive research implications are yet to be explored.

Creating literacy among athletes about the ways of combating mental illness during tough sports regimes is an essential task to be initiated for better outcomes. However, a more comprehensive health framework with extensive elucidations is essential to cover the large population of athletes with varying psychological symptoms. Most of the current research paradigms touch upon limited remedial measures for mental health issues. The early detection of mental illness and self-management during the initial onset of the symptoms is highly required for young athletes. This will help them to mitigate the possible adverse effects soon. The research on various methodologies in equipping the support staff and coaches of professional athletes is still in the early stages and hence needs immense progress in the coming days.

The relationship between parenting style and the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes can be explored through various psychological theories. According to Social Learning Theory, individuals learn by observing the behaviors of others and the consequences of those behaviors. In the context of parenting styles, adolescents may internalize the attitudes and behaviors of their parents towards mental illness. If parents exhibit stigmatizing attitudes or behaviors towards mental illness, adolescents may adopt similar views. Conversely, if parents are supportive and understanding of mental health issues, adolescents are more likely to develop positive attitudes towards mental illness and seek help when needed. Another theory that might be applicable is Attachment Theory, which focuses on the relationship between children and their caregivers. The parenting style, particularly the level of warmth, support, and responsiveness shown by parents, can influence the attachment patterns of adolescents. A secure attachment is associated with better mental health outcomes and a reduced likelihood of stigma towards mental illness, whereas insecure attachments may contribute to the development of stigma and other mental health issues.These theories provide frameworks for understanding how parenting styles can influence the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes. However, it’s essential to consider that multiple factors, including cultural influences, individual differences, and environmental factors, can also play a role in shaping attitudes towards mental health.

Self-esteem is an important aspect of every athlete and it is a critical factor in sports psychology. Better self-esteem improves the overall well-being and inspires the sports competitor to take on novel challenges. Evaluating the resilience and confidence of a sportsperson is required to gauge the proportion of mental toughness imbibed. Hence, these two factors, namely, self-esteem and mental toughness play a major role in the life-span of successful athletes. The parental role in bringing up prospective athletes is the foremost factor that requires stringent focus in the contemporary sports world. Apart from personal issues and environmental factors, the parental style is affecting adolescent mental health on a large scale. Hence, the study of parenting style and the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes is highly imperative in societal and economic transformations.

Athletes, who are subjected to rigorous and intense training regimens, often experience elevated risks of injuries, career instability, and public and media scrutiny (Lu, 2020). Top athletes are often exposed to potentially life-threatening situations, such as concussions, illnesses, and restrictive diets, yet they are expected to participate in training and competition as usual (Dehghansai et al., 2021). Furthermore, Van der Werf et al. (2019) argue that athletes begin to participate in sports during their formative years, and the pressures of athletic development change as they progress through different stages of development. Studies have indicated that athletes are often hesitant to seek treatment for mental health issues due to the perceived risk of jeopardizing their athletic careers (Gulliver et al., 2012). Most athletes do not seek professional psychological assistance. Over time, such behavior is likely to impact the attitudes of athletes with mental illness toward seeking help, leading to the frequent stigmatization of athletes’ mental illnesses, which in turn can hurt athletes’ careers. Against this backdrop, this paper aims to explore the relationship between parenting style and the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes, while also confirming the intermediary influence of self-esteem and mental toughness in the relationship between these variables. This will provide a theoretical and empirical basis for reducing the stigma of mental illness among adolescent athletes.

Influence of parenting style on the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes has the potential to be mediated by self-esteem and mental toughness. Parenting style variable represents different approaches to parenting, such as authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, or neglectful. Self-esteem and mental toughness are the variables that act as mechanisms through which the influence of parenting style on stigma of mental illness is transmitted. Self-esteem refers to an individual’s subjective evaluation of their own worth and competence, while mental toughness relates to the ability to cope with stress, challenges, and setbacks. Stigma of mental illness measures the degree to which adolescent athletes hold stigmatizing attitudes or beliefs towards mental illness.

The prospective methodology may strive to start a clear hypothesis that parenting style influences the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes indirectly through its effects on self-esteem and mental toughness. This hypothesis suggests a sequential or chain mediation model, where parenting style affects self-esteem, which in turn influences mental toughness, and finally, mental toughness affects the stigma of mental illness. Data would be collected through surveys or questionnaires administered to adolescent athletes, assessing their perceptions of parenting style, self-esteem, mental toughness, and attitudes towards mental illness. These surveys should include validated measures for assessing parenting style, self-esteem, mental toughness, and stigma of mental illness.

The mediation analysis examines whether the relationship between parenting style and stigma of mental illness is significantly influenced by self-esteem and mental toughness. This analysis typically involves testing whether the indirect effect of parenting style on stigma of mental illness through self-esteem and mental toughness (i.e., the mediated effect) is statistically significant. Statistical analysis can assess the direct relationship between parenting style and stigma of mental illness. By employing this methodological approach, researchers can gain insights into the complex interplay between parenting style, self-esteem, mental toughness, and stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes, providing valuable information for interventions aimed at promoting mental health and reducing stigma in this population.

Literature review and research hypotheses

Parenting style and stigma of mental illness

Stigma denotes the negative attitude and prejudices people attach to others, indicating that the labeled individual possess distinguishing characteristic, which in turn diminishes their personal value and social identity. Research has shown that stigma is one of the major risk factors responsible for poor mental health outcomes. Numerous empirical studies indicate that athletes are primarily adolescents during the competitive phase of their careers and are therefore at increased risk of developing mental health disorders during this period (Li et al., 2019; Hu et al.,2008; Yang & Wang, 2022). However, athletes are often hesitant to seek counseling for combating mental illness, and they have limited knowledge in assisting professionals with similar issues (DeLuca, 2020).

Research also suggests that athletes need to learn how to survive issues such as injuries, performance stagnation, and pressures from within and outside of sports organizations (Henriksen et al., 2020). These multiple factors tend to affect the morale of the athletes considerably and hence, the health and safety of athletes can be jeopardized. However, studies have demonstrated that parenting styles and the quality of parent-child relationships significantly impact brain development and the emergence of mental health disorders in early adolescence. As the primary and most critical social medium for adolescent development, family education has a crucial impact on adolescent mental health (Wu & Li, 2021; Singh et al., 2021). Therefore, parents must pay attention to how they raise adolescent athletes and create a positive upbringing environment to prevent the occurrence of mental illness stigma during the nurturing period.

Parenting style has a significant impact on children’s psychological development and behavioral norms. Studies have shown that parenting styles during adolescence are significantly related to the quality of life in adulthood and can directly affect adolescents’ mental health (Zhang et al., 2022). With the reform of China’s competitive sports talent training system, it has become more common to train athletes through the cooperation of families, schools, and clubs, thereby parenting styles can have an impact on the development and mental health of adolescent athletes. In recent years, foreign scholars have investigated the impact of parenting styles on the mental health of adolescent athletes, and the mind-related problems of top athletes have received a plethora of attention (McCabe et al., 2021). However, there is limited literature on the interaction between parenting styles and the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes in China. Therefore, this study proposes hypothesis 1: Parenting styles are significantly related to the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes.

The mediating role of self-esteem

One of the mediating methods in this study is the role of self-esteem. Self-esteem refers to an individual’s self-satisfaction, self-expectations, self-worth, and evaluative and emotional experiences, which involve cognition, emotion, and attitudes. Adolescents with elevated self-esteem are better prepared to adjust their behavior and situations and can reduce neuroses, somatic tendencies, and psychotic reactions after setbacks (Qian & Xiao, 1998). Studies have shown that students’ mental health is influenced by both self-esteem and parenting styles. Self-esteem plays a mediating role between parents’ parenting style and mental health. Individual psychological and behavioral regulation strategies, such as improving self-esteem by evaluating oneself positively, discovering one’s strengths, or attempting to challenge oneself and succeed, can reduce or counteract the stigma of mental illness (Zuo & Ai, 2011). Based on this evaluation, this study proposes hypothesis 2: Self-esteem has a mediating role between parenting styles and the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes.

Mediating role of mental toughness

The second mediating system in this study is the mediating role of mental toughness. Mental toughness is an ability that results from effective adaptation in the face of obstacles and dangerous situations, referring to individuals’ capability to promptly recover after experiencing any kind of stress or adversity. Previous research has indicated that a higher level of affection and care among family members, and the propensity to share more, makes it easier for children to develop strong mental toughness. Conversely, severe maternal discipline can negatively forecast the development of mental toughness, and when various subsystems of the family have more conflicts, the level of mental toughness in adolescents tends to be lower (Fan et al., 2018). Parenting styles characterized by emotional warmth and understanding promote the enhancement of adolescent mental toughness (Song et al., 2020), whereas parenting styles that involve harsh punishment and denial have an inhibitory effect on the development of adolescents’ mental toughness (Liu et al., 2016). Developing mental toughness helps to improve students’ mental health, while external social support (e.g., parents and friends), are crucial factor in promoting good mental health (Gan, 2022). Furthermore, research has also suggested that mental toughness helps to reduce the stigma associated with mental illness (Crowe et al., 2016). Athletes tend to be mentally tougher and healthier than non-athletes, and they can cope with many challenges that arise in their personal and professional lives more easily (Low et al., 2022). To sum up, parenting styles can influence the mental toughness of adolescent athletes, and enhancing the mental toughness of such athletes is not only beneficial to their mental health but can also assist them in managing the stress and anxiety they often face, thereby diminishing the stigma associated with mental illness from society. Thus, hypothesis 3 is proposed in this study: Mental toughness acts as a mediator between parenting styles and the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes.

The chain mediating role of self-esteem and mental toughness

Self-esteem and mental toughness are positively correlated, and self-esteem plays a critical role in the development of resilience and confidence in sports personalities. Research has demonstrated that the protective factors for mental toughness in children include high self-esteem, strong social support, and positive coping styles (Hu & Gan, 2008). Self-esteem can enhance an individual’s mental strength, enabling them to perform well in the face of stress and adversity. A higher level of self-esteem is associated with increased strength of mind and better problem-solving skills (Zhang & Jiang, 2022). When self-esteem is impaired, mental toughness is also significantly affected (Ma et al., 2021). Hence, such factors possess a synergistic relationship. Furthermore, research has pointed out that parenting styles have a strong predictive effect on the progress of adolescent self-esteem (Jia et al., 2016), and good parenting practices promote self-esteem (Bulanda & Majumdar, 2009).

To date, there is no literature on the underlying mechanism linking self-esteem and mental toughness, and their effect on the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes through parenting style. Therefore, this study uses self-esteem and mental toughness as chain mediating variables to examine the correlation between parenting style and the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes and provides a novel avenue for exploring the method by which parenting style can promote the mental well-being of adolescent athletes. Therefore, hypothesis 4 is proposed: Self-esteem and mental toughness have a chain mediating role in parenting styles and the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes.

In summary, the conceptual framework model diagram of this study (Fig. 1) was developed to (1) examine the correlation between parenting style and the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes; (2) investigate the mediating role of mental toughness in the relationship between parenting style and the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes; (3) assess the mediating role of self-esteem in the relationship between parenting style and the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes; and (4) examine the chain mediating role of self-esteem and mental toughness in the relationship between parenting style and the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes.

Fig. 1
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Conceptual architecture model

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Research objects and methods

Subject of study

This study utilizes random sampling techniques to investigate adolescent athletes in Guangdong Province, China. Guangdong is China’s southernmost mainland province with Guangzhou as the Provincial Capital. Guangdong is touted to be China’s economic powerhouse with a population of more than 125 million. Recent research has highlighted that an elevated volume of psychological issues are reported from athletes belonging to Guangdong province. Hence, athletes at or above the first level in sports such as swimming, athletics, basketball, football, volleyball, badminton, table tennis, fencing, and tennis were selected as participants from that region. The study included sports schools from various cities in Guangdong and certain professional sports colleges. Additionally, 17 comprehensive universities with high-level athlete enrollment qualifications were also included in the research work. The age range of participants selected for the study is between 15 to 20 years (middle and late adolescence category). The research questionnaire was divided into two sections: the first component gathered demographic data about the participants, while the second part used the Richter 5-level scale to measure the research topic.

Before data collection, the participants, their parents, and coaches were informed about the study’s type, purpose, and significance. Sample size calculations and formulas were utilized to ensure the sample size was adequate based on statistical considerations (Low et al., 2022). The sample size formula aids in determining the appropriate sample size by accounting for the variance between the population and the sample. As a reminder, the sample size represents the number of observations within a selected sample population. Given the impracticality of surveying an entire population, we opt for sampling, wherein a subset of the population is selected for survey or research purposes. Determining the Confidence Interval, Confidence Level and Standard Deviation are the major steps in calculating sample size. Converting the Confidence Level into a Z-Score is required to gather the result of sample size. The sample size calculation formula used in this study is N = Z2×(P ×(1-P)/E2), where N represents the sample size. Z is a statistic, and when the confidence level is 95%, z = 1.96, and when the confidence level is 90%, z = 1.64; E is the error value; P is the probability value. Setting the confidence interval at 0.95, and the significance threshold at 5%, the sample size calculated by the formula turned out to be 384 people. Considering that some questionnaires may be invalid due to incomplete answers or missing data, the study appropriately increased the number of respondents beyond the theoretical sample size. Therefore, 390 questionnaires were distributed in this study, and after removing invalid questionnaires, 386 valid samples were obtained with an effective recovery rate of 98.97%. Among the participants, the average age was 17.26 years (SD 3.84), the average training period was 5.45 years (SD 3.73), and the sample included 174 boys and 212 girls. The questionnaire test and collection period for the study was from April 6, 2022, to May 25, 2022.

Research methods

Parenting style measurement

The EMBU (Egma Minnen av Bardndosna uppforstran) is a questionnaire developed by C. Perris et al. at the Department of Psychiatry, University of Umea, Sweden, in 1980 to evaluate parenting attitudes and behaviors (Eisemann et al., 1984).The EMBU scale provides a powerful and objective tool for exploring the relationship between parenting styles and children’s mental health. The EMBU scale provides a powerful and objective tool for exploring the relationship between parenting styles and children’s mental health, and provides an avenue for exploring the etiology of mental illness. The EMBU scale was translated into Chinese and revised by Jine Zhang, et al. at the Institute of Mental Health, Beijing Medical University (Jine Zhang, 1993). Research has indicated that the EMBU scale holds high reliability and validity in China, (scale retest correlation coefficient of 0.84, Cronbach’s α coefficient of 0.85). It is therefore believed that the EMBU questionnaire can be effectively applied to Chinese populations. The revised EMBU scale now comprises a total of 66 items, 58 of which pertain to the father’s parenting style. The scale is organized into 6 factors, which are as follows: the father’s emotional warmth and empathy, the severity of the father’s punishments, excessive interference by the father, favoritism by the father, refusal by the father to acknowledge wrongdoing, and overprotectiveness factor. The Mother Scale comprises 5 factors similar to the list mentioned for the father’s scale except for the “overprotectiveness factor”. Participants completed the scale independently, with responses of “never” assigned a score of 1 point, “occasionally” assigned 2 points, “often” assigned 3 points, and “always” assigned 4 points. The scale requires calculating the mean of each factor value to obtain a representative score for that factor, with participants exhibiting a corresponding parenting style if a factor item score exceeds the norm average. Studies have demonstrated that the scale is highly applicable to adolescent groups (Cong et al., 2022; Yao et al., 2022). Among them, from Enzhao et al. used the whole cluster sampling method to test the parenting style questionnaire on 6,195 junior and senior high school students in Xinxiang City, Henan Province, from 2014 to 2018. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the scale used in the study from Enzhao et al. was 0.84. Yao Ting et al. used the whole cluster sampling method to randomly select 2 middle schools in Wuhan city, and selected 20 classes in the first grade, and conducted an on-site survey of middle school students using the Parenting Styles Scale with the entire student population of the selected classes (900 students) as the respondents. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the scale used in Yao Ting et al.‘s study was 0.86.In the present study, the Cronbach’s α coefficient for the scale is 0.87, and the fitting indices from the confirmatory factor analysis are as follows: 2/df = 1.346, RMSEA = 0.057, TLI = 0.896, GFI = 0.887, NFI = 0.867, CFI = 0.889, and IFI = 0.893. These findings suggest that the questionnaire exhibits strong reliability and validity.

Mental illness stigma measurement

Mental illness stigma has always been a negative predictor of professional psychological help attitudes, and individuals with high mental illness stigma demonstrate a negative attitude toward the necessity of seeking professional psychological assistance. The evaluation of mental illness stigma mainly centers on self-stigma, which is appraised via self-reported questionnaires. Hence, it is feasible to utilize the Help-seeking Self-Stigma Scale to evaluate participants’ mental illness stigma. One such scale is the Self-stigma of Seeking Help Scale (SSOSH). This scale includes ten questions, with a 5-point rating system ranging from 1 (totally non-compliant) to 5 (completely compliant). The total score of the scale is calculated by summing and scoring the degree of self-stigma, and the higher the score, the more severe the self-stigma. Other studies have also shown that this scale is highly applicable to adolescent groups (Liang et al., 2022). In this study, the self-stigma scale displayed a Cronbach’s α coefficient of 0.76, and the confirmatory factor analysis fit index was satisfactory: χ2/df = 1.453, RMSEA = 0.069, TLI = 0.906, GFI = 0.923, NFI = 0.917, CFI = 0.901, IFI = 0.923. These results indicate that the questionnaire exhibited excellent reliability and validity in this study.

Self-esteem measurement

Han et al. (2005) localized the self-esteem scale in China by considering cultural differences between China and the West and changing question 8 to a positive score. The self-esteem scale calculates the scores of positive scoring questions (1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8) as 1 for “very non-conforming,” 2 for “non-conforming,” 3 for “conforming,” and 4 for “very conforming” (e.g., question 1: I feel that I am a valuable person, at least on the same level as others). For reverse scoring questions (3, 5, 9, 10), the scores are 4 for “very unsatisfactory,” 3 for “non-conforming,” 2 for “conforming,” and 1 for “very conforming” (e.g., question 3: At the end of the day, I tend to feel like a loser). The self-esteem scale generates the overall score by summing and calculating the responses and typically categorizes the self-esteem scale test results into three levels: high, medium, and low. Scores below 25 points indicate low self-esteem, scores from 26 to 32 points indicate medium self-esteem and scores of 33 points or more indicate high self-esteem. Studies have indicated that the self-esteem scale exhibits high reliability and validity when assessing adolescent participants (Chen et al., 2022). In this study, the self-esteem scale displayed a Cronbach’s α coefficient of 0.87, and the confirmatory factor analysis fit indices were satisfactory: χ2/df = 1.676, RMSEA = 0.078, TLI = 0.936, GFI = 0.935, NFI = 0.921, CFI = 0.911, IFI = 0.918. These results suggest that the questionnaire exhibited excellent reliability and validity in this study.

Mental toughness measurement

Mental toughness is a measure of individual resilience and confidence that may predict success in sport, education, and the workplace. The Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale assesses resilience, gauging one’s capacity to rebound following stressful events, tragedy, or trauma. Resilience empowers individuals to flourish amid adversity, enabling them to navigate life’s trials more effectively (Connor & Davidson, 2003). In this scale, factor 1 embodies the concept of personal mastery, adherence to lofty standards, and unwavering persistence. Factor 2 aligns with self-assured reliance on intuition, resilience to adverse emotions, and the fortifying impact of stress. Factor 3 pertains to embracing change positively and fostering secure interpersonal connections. Factor 4 is associated with a sense of control, while Factor 5 is influenced by spirituality. This scale consists of 25 items, each offering a 5-point response range: from “not true at all” (0) to “true nearly all of the time” (4). Scores on the scale range from 0 to 100, with higher scores indicating stronger resilience. Western measurement tools do not adequately encompass the significant aspects of Chinese resilience and the distinctive patterns of Chinese behavior. Hence, there is a necessity to devise a localized measurement tool tailored for Chinese resilience. The Resilience Scale for Chinese Adolescents (RSCA) fulfills this need (Hu, & Gan, 2008). Featuring straightforward items and a coherent structure, its content resonates with the living circumstances of Chinese adolescents. Furthermore, it is dedicated to unraveling a constructive framework conducive to the wholesome development of adolescents. Consequently, since its inception, it has garnered increasing utilization and acknowledgment. RSCA comprises 27 items categorized into five factors: goal focus (GF), emotion control (EC), positive cognition (PC), family support (FS), and interpersonal assistance (IA). The first three factors fall under the realm of personal strength (PS), while the latter two are categorized under support strength (SS). A Likert 5-point scoring method is employed, ranging from 1 to 5 points, with responses ranging from “completely inconsistent” to “completely consistent”. A higher total score indicates a higher level of resilience. In this research study, the Cronbach’s α coefficient of the scale was 0.89, and the confirmatory factor analysis fit indices were satisfactory: 2/df = 1.653, RMSEA = 0.065, TLI = 0.926, GFI = 0.947, NFI = 0.935, CFI = 0.943, IFI = 0.943. These results suggest that the questionnaire displayed excellent reliability and validity in this study.

Mathematical statistics

Firstly, SPSS 21.0 software was employed to compute descriptive statistics (mean ± standard deviation) and perform difference testing (P) on the demographic information, parenting style, self-esteem, mental toughness, and mental illness stigma data < 0.05. At the same time, the overall parameters were tested by the sample information, which showed that the data in this study conformed to normal distribution (using normality test, RPB stem-and-leaf plot was obtained, and the results of the test showed that its corresponding probability value was 0.121, which was greater than 0.05, and the hypothesis test was accepted), so the data were analyzed using parametric tests. Therefore, independent samples t-test was used for gender differences and one-way ANOVA was used for age differences in this study. Next, analysis of variance was utilized to examine the correlation involving parenthood style and mental illness stigma, self-esteem, and mental toughness in adolescent athletes, while Pearson correlation analysis, collinearity, and variance homogeneity tests were conducted among the various variables. Finally, the chain mediation effect was evaluated using the SPSS macro program. The bootstrap (5000 times) sampling method was deployed to analyze and investigate the mediating effect between parenting style and mental illness stigma in adolescent athletes, with a significance level of < 0.05. Specific explanations are provided below:

The central focus of this research work is to study the relationship between parenting style and the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes, with an exploration of the mediating role of self-esteem and mental toughness. The initial step is to develop a hypothesis based on the research question. In the research design process, the best quantitative research design is chosen, which involves making decisions about the sample size followed by the selection of participants. The data collection is carried out as the next step. Statistical analysis is used to analyze the data collected. The results from the analysis help in either supporting or rejecting the hypothesis. The final research findings provide valuable insights and solutions for the problem.

In this research work, various data collection instruments are deployed and they are denoted as follows: The EMBU (Egna Minnen av Barndoms Uppfostran) is a self-report questionnaire utilized in this work to investigate the relationship between parenting styles and various outcomes such as psychological well-being, personality development, and interpersonal relationships. It has also been adapted and translated into different languages for use in diverse cultural contexts. EMBU is a valuable tool for assessing individuals’ perceptions of their childhood-rearing experiences and understanding the impact of parenting styles on later outcomes. Furthermore, mental illness stigma measurement is carried out using the Self-Stigma of Seeking Help Scale (SSOSH). It is a psychological assessment tool designed to measure an individual’s perception and internalization of stigma related to seeking help for mental health issues. The SSOSH typically consists of a series of statements or items that assess various aspects of self-stigma related to help-seeking behavior. Self-Esteem Scale is utilized as a tool in this work to measure an individual’s overall feelings of self-worth, self-acceptance, and self-respect. The Resilience Scale for Chinese Adolescents (RSCA) is a psychological assessment tool designed to measure resilience among Chinese adolescents. Resilience refers to an individual’s ability to adapt and bounce back from adversity, challenges, or stressors in life. This tool is used exclusively in this research for mental toughness measurement.

This work deploys SPSS 21.0 software. It provides a powerful and versatile tool for quantitative data analysis, with a range of features designed to enhance productivity, efficiency, and accuracy in statistical research. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is a statistical technique used in this work to compare means between two or more groups to determine whether there are statistically significant differences among them. Pearson correlation analysis, collinearity testing, and variance homogeneity testing are three important statistical techniques commonly used in this model. Pearson correlation analysis is a statistical method used to measure the strength and direction of the linear relationship between two continuous variables. Collinearity refers to the presence of high correlations between predictor variables in regression analysis, which can lead to unreliable parameter estimates and inflated standard errors. Collinearity testing involves assessing the degree of correlation among predictor variables. Variance homogeneity, also known as homoscedasticity, refers to the assumption that the variance of the dependent variable is consistent across different levels of the independent variables. SPSS macro program for statistical analysis is used to automate repetitive tasks, standardize procedures, and enhance the efficiency of data analysis workflow.

Results

Descriptive statistics on parenting styles, mental stigma, self-esteem, and mental toughness

Table 1 indicated that there were no statistically significant gender differences in mental illness stigma and self-esteem (P > 0.05), with male athletes scoring slightly higher than female athletes. On the other hand, parenting style and mental toughness exhibited significant gender differences (P < 0.05), with male athletes scoring higher than female athletes. Additionally, parenting style, mental illness stigma, self-esteem, and mental toughness all showed significant age differences (P < 0.05), with male athletes scoring higher than female athletes.

Table 1 Descriptive statistics of parenting style, mental illness stigma, self-esteem, and mental toughness test results (x ± SD)
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Common method bias test

The use of questionnaires to gather data may introduce the risk of common methodological bias. To address this potential issue, statistical control was conducted using Harman’s one-way test before analyzing the data. Specifically, unrotated principal component factor analysis was employed to analyze the items of all variables. The results indicated that 18 factors with feature values greater than 1 were extracted from the unrotated exploratory factor analysis, and the variance explained by the first factor was 37.13%, which is less than the 40% cut-off value. This finding suggests that no factors can account for most of the variance in this study, indicating no significant common methodological bias.

Analysis of parenting styles, the stigma of mental illness, self-esteem and mental toughness

The Pearson correlation analysis results (Table 2) indicate that parenting style is significantly and positively correlated with self-esteem and mental toughness, and significantly and negatively correlated with mental illness stigma. Self-esteem is significantly and positively correlated with mental toughness, and negatively correlated with mental illness stigma. Furthermore, mental toughness is significantly and negatively correlated with mental illness stigma. These significant correlations among the study variables (parenting style, mental illness stigma, self-esteem, and mental toughness) provide a solid foundation for subsequent testing of the mediation effect.

Table 2 Analysis of the correlation between parenting style, mental illness stigma, self-esteem and Mental Toughness
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Mediating effect test of mental toughness and self-esteem

To test the mediation consequence of self-esteem and mental toughness on the affiliation between parenting approach and mental illness stigma, the SPSS macro program plug-in PROCESS, provided by Hayes (Hayes, 2013), was employed. The non-parametric percentile bootstrap test of deviation correction was used based on templates, with 5000 repeated samples set to calculate the 95% confidence interval. The chain mediation model effect analysis was carried out. According to Table 3 and the path coefficient result plot (Fig. 2), it can be observed that the total effect of parenting style on the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes was − 0.457. The path coefficient of parenting style on self-esteem was − 0.375, the path coefficient of self-esteem on mental illness stigma was − 0.063, the path coefficient of parenting style on mental toughness was − 0.175, the path coefficient of mental toughness on mental illness stigma was − 0.162, and the path coefficient of self-esteem on mental toughness was 0.673. All of these path coefficients were at the significance level (P < 0.01). These findings validate the research hypothesis H1.

Table 3 Regression analysis of the chain mediation model between parenting style and mental illness stigma
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Upon analyzing the standardized effect values and significance tests corresponding to the action paths of parenting style affecting mental illness stigma, it was found that the bootstrap 95% confidence interval for the total indirect effects of parenting style and mental illness stigma does not contain 0. This result implies that the mediating variables “self-esteem” and “Mental Toughness” in this study have a significant mediating effect on parenting style and mental illness stigma. The mediating effect can be broken down into three indirect effects: (1) Bootstrap 95% confidence interval of the “parenting style"→ “self-esteem” → “mental illness stigma” pathway does not contain 0, indicating that self-esteem has a significant mediating role between the style of parenthood and mental illness stigma; wherein the normalized value is -0.109, accounting for 9.40% of the total effect, which validates hypothesis H2. (2) Bootstrap 95% confidence interval of the “parenting style"→ “Mental Toughness” → “mental illness stigma” pathway does not contain 0, suggesting that mental toughness plays a noteworthy mediating role between parenting style and mental illness stigma. The normalized value is -0.043, accounting for 23.85% of the total effect, which verifies hypothesis H3. (3) The Bootstrap 95% confidence interval of the “parenting style” → “self-esteem” → " Mental Toughness” → “mental illness stigma” pathway does not contain 0, indicating that self-esteem and mental toughness created a significant chain mediating task between parenting style and mental illness stigma; wherein normalized value = -0.066, accounting for 14.44% of the total effect, which verifies hypothesis H4.The observations are recorded as shown in Table 4.

Table 4 Chain mediating effect test of self-esteem and Mental Toughness in parenting style and stigma of mental illness
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Fig. 2
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Chain mediation model of self-esteem and Mental Toughness between parenting style and stigma of mental illness

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Discussion

The relationship between parenting style and the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes

This study focuses on the correlation between parenting styles and the stigma surrounding mental illness in adolescent athletes. The outcome of this study demonstrated a negative correlation between parenting style and the score of the mental illness stigma test among adolescent athletes (R = -0.86). After incorporating the mediating variable, parenting style exhibited a significant predictive effect on mental illness stigma among adolescent athletes (P < 0.001). The results reveal that parenting styles can have a direct and negative impact on the stigma of mental illness among adolescent athletes. In other words, the more favorable the parenting style, the lower the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes, conversely, which is consistent with prior research results (Qian & Xiao, 1998; Yang & Zhao, 2012; Moran et al., 2018; Appiah-Kubi & Amoako, 2020), and validates the hypothesis 1. This is because as the age and gender differences between adolescent athletes increase, the impact of divergent parenting styles on the mental well-being of adolescent athletes varies considerably, and there is a distinct correlation between all aspects of parenting styles and adolescent mental health. Based on research on parent-child attachment, early parent-child relationships possess an impact on the future well-being of children, and children start developing lasting parental attachment from a very young age, owing to the responsive and positive parenting style of parents in this cohort. While the “best” parenting styles can positively influence a child’s future development, good parenting can enhance their life satisfaction, decrease anxiety, and make them more likely to lead successful lives. Substandard parenting styles during adolescence can lead to negative emotional and psychopathological symptoms in adulthood. Studies have also indicated that most teenagers, including adolescent athletes who are often in secluded and monotonous training and competitive environments, are hesitant to seek mental health services. These adolescent athletes are more vulnerable to experiencing negative emotional and psychopathological symptoms, as they are less adept at dealing with mental health problems.

Further, data from testing four variables, including parenting styles in this study, revealed a complex interaction between gender, age, and various psychological factors in athletes. Interestingly, although gender did not have a significant effect on mental illness stigma and self-esteem, male athletes tended to score slightly higher on these dimensions than female athletes. This may suggest that gender may not be a determining factor when it comes to mental health attitudes and self-perceptions (Ruiz-Montero et al., 2020). However, parenting styles and mental toughness were significant contributors to gender differences, with male athletes demonstrating higher levels than female athletes. This may be attributed to societal norms and expectations of masculinity, which may encourage male athletes to adopt a more resilient mindset and view authoritative parenting styles more positively (Fulton et al., 2017). Additionally, this study emphasizes the importance of using age as a factor in understanding psychological differences in athletes. Among the parenting styles, mental illness stigma, self-esteem, and mental toughness measurement variables, age played a significant role, with older athletes generally scoring higher than adolescent athletes. This highlights a potential developmental trajectory of psychological fitness in athletes, whereby individuals may develop greater psychological resilience, higher self-esteem, and more adaptive attitudes toward mental illness as they grow older and more experienced (Young et al., 2018; Lundqvist et al., 2023). It is worth noting that gender differences still exist in these domains, with male athletes consistently scoring higher than female athletes. This suggests that while age may contribute to the enhancement of certain psychological factors, gender differences in sport remain deeply entrenched, and further research into the social and cultural factors that contribute to such differences is necessary.

The mediating role of self-esteem and mental toughness in adolescent athletes

This study not only investigates the direct association involving parenting style and the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes but also constructs a mediating model with self-esteem and mental toughness as mediating variables. The findings indicated that the mediating effect of self-esteem was significant, with a 95% CI=[-0.012, -0.009], the relative effect accounting for 9.40%, and self-esteem played a partial mediating role between parenting style and the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes. Thus, hypothesis 2 is supported. This corresponds with prior research (Qian & Xiao, 1998; Song et al., 2020; Wang et al.,2021), wherein positive parenting styles are associated with better self-esteem development in children, whereas negative parenting styles can significantly impede children’s self-esteem development. Guiding children’s self-esteem to an appropriate level can also help decrease the stigma of mental illness. Ecosystem theory postulates that self-esteem evolves from an individual’s early years, mainly relying on the evaluation and feedback of others. Parents play a pivotal role in the formation and development of children’s self-esteem. For adolescent athletes, there was a noteworthy correlation between self-esteem and mental illness stigma, which negatively affected their self-esteem levels. Moreover, research suggests that regular physical activity can enhance an individual’s self-esteem, and athletes with a positive mindset are significantly less likely to exhibit psychological symptoms. Nevertheless, the mental health of elite athletes is often compromised by factors such as overtraining, sports injuries, and retirement, leading to mental illness stigma, which is the primary obstacle for adolescent elite athletes to seek assistance. Therefore, to mitigate the negative influence of mental illness stigma in adolescent athletes, it is necessary to enhance and refine parenting styles, while also taking into account the role of self-esteem in adolescent athletes.

Additionally, this research established the fact that the mediating outcome of mental toughness was significant, with a 95% CI = [-0.074, -0.027], the relative effect accounting for 23.85%, and mental toughness played a partial mediating role between parenting style and the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes. This confirms the existing results (Liu et al., 2016), thereby validating hypothesis 3. This may be attributable to the fact that the defense mechanism of mental toughness can liberate people from adversity, and superior mental strength enables athletes to sustain better decision-making, self-confidence, concentration, and stress control in special situations. Adolescents growing up in families characterized by persistent conflict are more likely to develop significant social and emotional disorders, which can impede their capacity to cope with stress This, in turn, can significantly limit athletes’ access to assistance, contributing to the exacerbation of mental illness stigma. Therefore, the results of this study affirm that parenting style can impact the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes through mental toughness.

A chain mediation between parenting styles and the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes

This study further reveals that parenting style plays a partial mediating role in the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes, established by the chain mediation of self-esteem and mental toughness, with a 95% CI=[-0.065, -0.003], and the chain mediation effect accounts for 14.44% of the total effect. Thus, self-esteem and mental toughness have a chain mediating effect between parenting methods and the stigma of emotional distress in adolescent athletes, which validates hypothesis 4. This aligns with prior research (Zuo & Ai, 2011; Yang, 2019), which demonstrates that self-esteem and mental toughness have a synergistic effect. High self-esteem can enhance the level of mental toughness, even in the face of challenging situations, by effectively decreasing the intensity of the event’s threat, promoting and stimulating an individual’s mental toughness, and ultimately enabling the individual to effectively cope with the difficult situation. In other words, individuals with high levels of self-esteem are more inclined to confront difficulties and setbacks with positive attitudes. These findings indicate that improper parenting styles can lead to a reduction in adolescent self-esteem and mental toughness, thereby resulting in the stigma of mental illness. Therefore, it is essential to recognize that parenting style can significantly impact the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes through self-esteem and mental toughness, with self-esteem and mental toughness playing the role of an intermediary chain.

Research significance, shortcomings and prospects

This study makes significant theoretical contributions to the investigation of the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes and the role of parenting styles in reducing such stigma. While it is not possible to cure mental illness stigma entirely through parenting styles, the findings of this study suggest that positive parenting styles can help reduce such stigma in adolescent athletes. Moreover, the results of this study will aid policymakers, parents, athletes, and relevant scholars in understanding the pertinent issues regarding the impact mechanism between the parenting style of adolescent athletes and the stigma of mental illness. However, this study has limitations due to numerous factors.

First, this study relied on self-reported questionnaires from respondents, which may have introduced common method variance. Additionally, the evaluation of psychological data (especially opinionated information) obtained from investigators over a certain period can complicate the research. Future studies may consider using a combination of evaluations from others and self-reporting. Secondly, this study employed a cross-sectional study design that was collected at a single time point with the intent to investigate the impact of parenting methods on the stigma of cognitive illness in adolescent athletes. This design cannot establish a causal relationship between variables, and future studies should consider using experimental interventions, tracking, and other scientific and technological methods to analyze the mechanism of the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes. Thirdly, this study focused on adolescent athletes, which may limit its universality and applicability. To broaden the study’s scope, future studies should use longitudinal data collection techniques and employ objective assessment measures to address common differences in study procedures and enhance its generalization capability. Finally, the impact of other factors such as social support and peer support on the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes was not considered. Thus, future studies should explore these domains to enhance the extensiveness of the evaluated results.

Conclusion

In recent years, enormous research findings have been explored on the broad spectrum of athletes’ mental health. However specific explorations of critical parameters affecting young athletes are not studied extensively. Reports from various literatures highlight the prevalence of mental illness among athletes from varying backgrounds. The athletes from the adolescent age group are affected by mood disorders, anxiety, overtraining, abuse, maltreatment, and parental pressure. These mental issues jeopardize the long-term vision of every aspiring athlete. Hence, this research work demonstrates the relationship between parenting style and the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes with extensive experimentation. The impact of parenting style on the role of self-esteem and mental toughness is explored. Questionnaires on the parenting assessment scale, self-stigma scale, self-esteem scale, and mental toughness scale are utilized. Formulation of descriptive statistics and analysis are carried out and the results are generated. The inferences are as follows: Gender differences are significant in parenting style and mental toughness, and age differences are significant in parenting style, mental illness stigma, self-esteem, and mental toughness; while male athletes perform significantly better than female athletes. The correlation between parenting style and the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes was significant, and parenting style was found to be a significant predictor of adolescent athletes’ self-esteem, mental toughness, and mental illness stigma. Therefore, parenting style has the potential to influence adolescent athletes’ self-esteem and mental toughness, which can in turn impact the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes. Positive parenting styles have been shown to enhance the self-esteem and mental toughness of adolescent athletes while reducing the stigma of mental illness.

The impact of parenting style on the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes is not only direct but also indirect. Parenting style can indirectly predict mental illness stigma through the separate mediating role of self-esteem and mental toughness, as well as through the chain mediation of self-esteem and mental toughness. This indicates that reducing the stigma of mental illness in adolescent athletes requires not only attention to parenting style but also a focus on improving their self-esteem and mental strength related to competition, training, and life aspects. Through the implementation of this approach, adolescent athletes can participate more proactively in both their training and competitive activities, ultimately prolonging their athletic tenure.