Abstract
Loneliness, an emotionally unpleasant experience resulting from a discrepancy between a person’s desired and perceived quality of social relationships, is highly prevalent among young adults nowadays. Therefore, it is important to investigate factors associated with the level of loneliness in early adulthood, especially among females whose self-construal and adjustment are more dependent on social relationships in comparison to self-construal and adjustment of men. Based on the interpersonal acceptance-rejection theory and the rejection sensitivity model, this study aimed to examine the relations of female university students’ (N = 220) remembrances of maternal, paternal and best friends’ rejection experienced in childhood with their current level of loneliness and the changes in loneliness over time, and to test whether rejection sensitivity mediates these relations. The results of a two-wave longitudinal study showed that young female adults’ remembrances of rejection from significant others are concurrently, but not longitudinally, related to their loneliness, both directly and indirectly via rejection sensitivity. These findings support the interpersonal acceptance-rejection theory and the rejection sensitivity model, and suggest that remembrances of rejection in childhood and rejection sensitivity should be addressed in programs aimed to reduce the level of loneliness in young female adults.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Code availability
Not applicable.
References
Ahmed, R. A., Rohner, R. P., & Carrasco, M. A. (2012). Relations between psychological adjustment and perceived parental, sibling, best friend, and teacher acceptance among kuwaiti adolescents. In K. Ripoll-Nuñez, A. L. Comunian, & C. M. Brown (Eds.), Expanding horizons: Current research on interpersonal acceptance (pp. 1–10). Brown Walker Press.
Ali, S., Khaleque, A., & Rohner, R. P. (2015). Pancultural gender differences in the relation between perceived parental acceptance and psychological adjustment of children and adult offspring: A meta-analytic review of worldwide research. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 46(8), 1059–1080. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022115597754
Arnett, J. J., Žukauskienė, R., & Sugimura, K. (2014). The new life stage of emerging adulthood at ages 18–29 years: Implications for mental health. The Lancet Psychiatry, 1(7), 569–576. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(14)00080-7
Bagwell, C. L., Newcomb, A. F., & Bukowski, W. M. (1998). Preadolescent friendship and peer rejection as predictors of adult adjustment. Child Development, 69(1), 140–153. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.tb06139.x
Bagwell, C. L., Schmidt, M. E., Newcomb, A. F., & Bukowski, W. M. (2001). Friendship and peer rejection as predictors of adult adjustment. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2001(91), 25–50. https://doi.org/10.1002/cd.4
Barrett, P. (2007). Structural equation modelling: Adjudging model fit. Personality and Individual Differences, 42(5), 815–824. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2006.09.018
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497
Bowker, J. C., Thomas, K. K., Norman, K. E., & Spencer, S. V. (2011). Mutual best friendship involvement, best friends’ rejection sensitivity, and psychological maladaptation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40, 545–555. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-010-9582-x
Çardak, M., Sarıçam, H., & Onur, M. (2012). Perceived parenting styles and rejection sensitivity in university students. The Online Journal of Counselling and Education, 1, 57–69. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.11864.75527
Downey, G., & Feldman, S. I. (1996). Implications of rejection sensitivity for intimate relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 1327–1343. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.6.1327
Downey, G., Freitas, A. L., Michaelis, B., & Khouri, H. (1998). The self-fulfilling prophecy in close relationships: Rejection sensitivity and rejection by romantic partners. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(2), 545. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.75.2.545
Downey, G., Khouri, H., & Feldman, S. (1997). Early interpersonal trauma and later adjustment: The meditational role of rejection sensitivity. In D. Cicchetti & S. Toth (Eds.), Rochester symposium on developmental psychopathology: Theory, research and intervention (pp. 85–114). University of Rochester Press.
Feldman, S., & Downey, G. (1994). Rejection sensitivity as a mediator of the impact of childhood exposure to family violence on adult attachment behaviour. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 231–247. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579400005976
Gao, S., Assink, M., Cipriani, A., & Lin, K. (2017). Associations between rejection sensitivity and mental health outcomes: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 57, 59–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.08.007
Gao, S., Assink, M., Liu, T., Chan, K. L., & Ip, P. (2019). Associations between rejection sensitivity, aggression, and victimization: a meta-analytic review. Trauma, Violence, and Abuse. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838019833005. Advance online publication.
Guimond, S., Chatard, A., Martinot, D., Crisp, R. J., & Redersdorff, S. (2006). Social comparison, self-stereotyping, and gender differences in self-construals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(2), 221–242. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.2.221
Hartup, W. W. (1996). The company they keep: Friendships and their developmental significance. Child Development, 67, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131681
Heinrich, L. M., & Gullone, E. (2006). The clinical significance of loneliness: A literature review. Clinical Psychology Review, 26(6), 695–718. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2006.04.002
Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
Ibrahim, D. M., Rohner, R. P., Smith, R. L., & Flannery, K. M. (2015). Adults’ remembrances of parental acceptance-rejection in childhood predict current rejection sensitivity in adulthood. Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal, 44, 51–62. https://doi.org/10.1111/fcsr.12119
Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (3rd.). Guilford Press.
Lefkowitz, E. S. (2005). Things have gotten Better” developmental changes among emerging adults after the transition to university. Journal of Adolescent Research, 20(1), 40–63. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558404271236
Levy, S. R., Ayduk, O., & Downey, G. (2001). The role of rejection sensitivity in people’s relationships with significant others and valued social groups. In M. R. Leary (Ed.), Interpersonal rejection (pp. 251–289). Oxford University Press.
London, B., Downey, G., Bonica, C., & Paltin, I. (2007). Social causes and consequences of rejection sensitivity. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 17, 481–506. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2007.00531.x
McDonald, K. L., Bowker, J. C., Rubin, K. H., Laursen, B., & Duchene, M. S. (2010). Interactions between rejection sensitivity and supportive relationships in the prediction of adolescents’ internalizing difficulties. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39(5), 563–574. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-010-9519-4
McDougall, P., & Vaillancourt, T. (2015). Long-term adult outcomes of peer victimization in childhood and adolescence: Pathways to adjustment and maladjustment. American Psychologist, 70(4), 300–310. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039174
McLachlan, J., Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., & McGregor, L. (2010). Rejection sensitivity in childhood and early adolescence: Peer rejection and protective effects of parents and friends. Journal of Relationships Research, 1, 31–40. https://doi.org/10.1375/jrr.1.1.31
Mellin, E. A. (2008). Rejection sensitivity and college student depression: Findings and implications for counseling. Journal of College Counseling, 11(1), 32–41. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1882.2008.tb00022.x
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2017). Mplus User’s Guide (8th ed.). Muthén and Muthén.
Özen, A., Sümer, N., & Demir, M. (2011). Predicting friendship quality with rejection sensitivity and attachment security. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 28(2), 163–181. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407510380607
Putnick, D. L., Uddin, M. K., Rohner, R. P., Singha, B., & Shahnaz, I. (2020). Remembrances of parental rejection are associated with loneliness as mediated by psychological maladjustment in young bangladeshi men but not women. International Journal of Psychology, 55(3), 354–363. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12609
Qualter, P., Vanhalst, J., Harris, R., Van Roekel, E., Lodder, G., Bangee, M., Verhagen, M., Qualter, P., Vanhalst, J., Harris, R., Van Roekel, E., Lodder, G., Bangee, M., Maes, M., & Verhagen, M. (2015). Loneliness across the life span. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(2), 250–264. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691615568999
Rohner, R. P. (2004). The parental “acceptance-rejection syndrome”: Universal correlates of perceived rejection. American Psychologist, 59, 827–840. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.59.8.830
Rohner, R. P. (2005). Parental Acceptance-Rejection questionnaire (PARQ): Test manual. In R. P. Rohner & A. Khaleque (Eds.), Handbook for the study of parental acceptance and rejection (Vol. 4th, pp. 43–106). Rohner Research Publications.
Rohner, R. P., & Lansford, J. E. (2017). Deep structure of the human affectional system: Introduction to interpersonal acceptance–rejection theory. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 9(4), 426–440. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12219
Rohner, R. P., Putnick, D. L., Molaver, A. D., Ali, S., Butt, M. M., Ibrahim, D. M., Aurino, C., Blom, M., Darwesh, F. H., Auricchio, S., Radha, A. H., Miranda, M. C., Adamsons, K., & Senese, V. P. (2020). Psychological maladjustment mediates the link between remembrances of parental rejection in childhood and loneliness in adulthood: A cross-cultural comparative study. International Journal of Psychology, 55(4), 590–600. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12621
Rowe, S. L., Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., Rudolph, J., & Nesdale, D. (2015). A longitudinal study of rejecting and autonomy-restrictive parenting, rejection sensitivity, and socioemotional symptoms in early adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43(6), 1107–1118. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-014-9966-6
Russell, D., Peplau, L. A., & Ferguson, M. L. (1978). Developing a measure of loneliness. Journal of Personality Assessment, 42(3), 290–294. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4203_11
Saricam, H., Gencdogan, B., & Erozkan, A. (2012). The examination of the relationship between the university students’ rejection sensivities, self-esteem and loneliness levels. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 46, 2716–2720. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.05.553
Sherman, A. M., de Vries, B., & Lansford, J. E. (2000). Friendship in childhood and adulthood: Lessons across the life span. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 51(1), 31–51. https://doi.org/10.2190/4qfv-d52d-tpyp-rlm6
Vasileiou, K., Barnett, J., Barreto, M., Vines, J., Atkinson, M., Long, K., Wilson, M., Vasileiou, K., Barnett, J., Barreto, M., Vines, J., Atkinson, M., Long, K., Bakewell, L., Lawson, S., & Wilson, M. (2019). Coping with loneliness at University: A qualitative interview study with students in the UK. Mental Health & Prevention, 13, 21–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mhp.2018.11.002
Watson, J., & Nesdale, D. (2012). Rejection sensitivity, social withdrawal, and loneliness in young adults. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 42(8), 1984–2005. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2012.00927.x
Wiseman, H., Mayseless, O., & Sharabany, R. (2006). Why are they lonely? Perceived quality of early relationships with parents, attachment, personality predispositions and loneliness in first-year university students. Personality and Individual Differences, 40(2), 237–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2005.05.015
Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., Trevaskis, S., Nesdale, D., & Downey, G. A. (2014). Relational victimisation, loneliness and depressive symptoms: Indirect associations via self and peer reports of rejection sensitivity. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43, 568–582. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-9993-6
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Both authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Maja Brekalo. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Maja Brekalo and Gordana Keresteš commented on and edited previous versions of the manuscript. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval
This study was performed in line with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Approval was granted by the Ethics Committee of the Catholic University of Croatia (Date: 5th July 2017/No. 498-05-17-146).
Consent to participate
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Consent to publish
All participants were informed and give consent that results on group level will be published in scientific papers.
Conflict of interest
The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare that are relevant to the content of this paper.
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Brekalo, M., Keresteš, G. Remembrances of childhood rejection and loneliness in female university students: a mediating role of rejection sensitivity. Curr Psychol 43, 8252–8260 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-023-05010-4
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-023-05010-4