Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Relational Victimization, Loneliness and Depressive Symptoms: Indirect Associations Via Self and Peer Reports of Rejection Sensitivity

  • Empirical Research
  • Published:
Journal of Youth and Adolescence Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Theory suggests that aversive social experiences generate emotional maladjustment because they prompt the development of a hypersensitivity to perceiving and overreacting to rejection. The primary aim of this study was to test hypothesized direct and indirect (via rejection sensitivity) links of overt/relational victimization and friendship conflict with early adolescents’ loneliness and depressive symptoms. Participants were 366 Australian early adolescents age 10–14 years (50.5 % girls). Using both a self-report and peer-report measure of rejection sensitivity, no difference was found when comparing the significant correlations of each measure with loneliness and depressive symptoms. Tests of direct and indirect associations with structural equation modeling showed that adolescents higher in relational victimization reported more loneliness and depressive symptoms and part of this association was by way of their greater self-reports of rejection sensitivity and their peers’ identification that they were higher in rejection sensitivity. Additionally, relational victimization was the only unique correlate of emotional maladjustment, and adolescents who reported more overt victimization were identified by their peers as higher in rejection sensitivity. Finally, gender and rejection sensitivity were tested as moderators. No gender moderation was found, but friendship conflict was associated more strongly with emotional maladjustment for adolescents low, rather than high, in rejection sensitivity. These findings identify relational victimization as particularly salient for emotional maladjustment both directly and indirectly via links with elevated rejection sensitivity. They show how rejection sensitivity and aversive experiences may contribute independently and jointly to emotional maladjustment for both boys and girls.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abela, J. R. Z., & Hankin, B. L. (2009). Cognitive vulnerability to depression in adolescents: A developmental psychopathology perspective. In S. Nolen-Hoeksema & L. M. Hilt (Eds.), Handbook of depression in adolescents (pp. 335–376). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adler, P. A., & Adler, P. (1998). Peer power: Preadolescent culture and identity. New Jersey: Rutgers University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bauman, S. (2008). The association between gender, age, and acculturation, and depression and overt and relational victimization among Mexican American elementary students. Journal of Early Adolescence, 28, 528–554. doi:10.1177/0272431608317609.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. M., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497–529. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bentler, P. M., & Bonett, D. G. (1980). Significance tests and goodness-of-fit in the analysis of covariance structures. Psychological Bulletin, 88, 588–606. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.88.3.588.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 136–162). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Butler, J. C., Doherty, M. S., & Potter, R. M. (2007). Social antecedents and consequences of interpersonal rejection sensitivity. Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 1376–1385. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2007.04.006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Card, N. A., & Hodges, E. V. E. (2008). Peer victimization among schoolchildren: Correlations, causes, consequences, and considerations in assessment and intervention. School Psychology Quarterly, 23, 451–461. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2009.00562.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Card, N. A., Stucky, B. D., Sawalani, G. M., & Little, T. D. (2008). Direct and indirect aggression during childhood and adolescence: A meta-analytic review of gender differences, intercorrelations, and relations to maladjustment. Child Development, 79, 1185–1229. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01184.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cassidy, J., & Asher, S. R. (1992). Loneliness and peer relations in young children. Child Development, 63, 350–365. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1992.tb01632.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chango, J. M., McElhaney, K. B., Allen, J. P., Schad, M. M., & Marston, E. M. (2012). Relational stressors and depressive symptoms in late adolescence: Rejection sensitivity as a vulnerability. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40, 369–379. doi:10.1007/s10802-011-9570-y.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coie, J. D., Dodge, K. A., & Coppotelli, H. (1982). Dimensions and types of social status: A cross-age perspective. Developmental Psychology, 18, 557–570. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.18.4.557.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cole, D. A., Maxwell, M. A., Dukewich, T. L., & Yosick, R. (2010). Targeted peer victimization and the construction of positive and negative self-cognitions: Connections to depressive symptoms in children. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 39, 421–435. doi:10.1080/15374411003691776.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R. (1996). The role of overt aggression, relational aggression, and prosocial behavior in the prediction of children’s future social adjustment. Child Development, 67, 2317–2327.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R., & Grotpeter, J. K. (1995). Relational aggression, gender, and social psychological adjustment. Child Development, 66, 710–722. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1995.tb00900.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cross, D., Shaw, T., Hearn, L., Epstein, M., Monks, H., Lester, L., & Thomas, L. (2009). Australian Covert Bullying Prevalence Study (ACBPS). Child Health Promotion Research Centre, Edith Cowan University, Perth. Retrieved from http://foi.deewr.gov.au/documents/australian-covert-bullying-prevalence-study-executive-summary.

  • Cullerton-Sen, C., & Crick, N. R. (2005). Understanding the effects of physical and relational victimization: The utility of multiple perspectives in predicting social-emotional adjustment. School Psychology Review, 34, 147–160.

    Google Scholar 

  • Downey, G., Bonica, C., & Rincon, C. (1999). Rejection sensitivity and adolescent romantic relationships. In W. Furman, B. Bradford Brown, & C. Feiring (Eds.), The development of romantic relationships in adolescence (pp. 148–174). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Downey, G., & Feldman, S. I. (1996). Implications of rejection sensitivity for intimate relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 1327–1343. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.6.1327.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Downey, G., Irwin, L., Ramsay, M., & Ayduk, O. (2004). Rejection sensitivity and girls’ aggression. In M. M. Moretti, C. L. Odgers, & M. A. Jackson (Eds.), Girls and aggression: Contributing factors and intervention principles (pp. 7–25). New York: Kluwer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Downey, G., Lebolt, A., Rincon, C., & Freitas, A. L. (1998). Rejection sensitivity and children’s interpersonal difficulties. Child Development, 69, 1074–1091. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.tb06161.x.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Epkins, C. C., & Heckler, D. R. (2011). Integrating etiological models of social anxiety and depression in youth: Evidence for a cumulative interpersonal risk model. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14, 329–376. doi:10.1007/s10567-011-0101-8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Furman, W., & Buhrmester, D. (1985). Children’s perceptions of the personal relationships in their social networks. Developmental Psychology, 21, 1016–1024. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.21.6.1016.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, S., Bellmore, A., & Juvonen, J. (2003). Peer victimization in middle school. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 19, 117–137. doi:10.1300/J008v19n02_08.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harter, S. (2012). The construction of the self: Developmental and sociocultural foundations (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kovacs, M. (1985). The Child’s Depression Inventory (CDI). Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 21, 995–998.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • London, B., Downey, G., & Bonica, C. (2007). Social causes and consequences of rejection sensitivity. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 17, 481–506. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2007.00531.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McDonald, K. L., Bowker, J. C., Rubin, K. H., Laursen, B., & Duchene, M. S. (2010). Interactions between rejection sensitivity and supportive relationships in the prediction of adolescents’ internalizing difficulties. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39, 563–574. doi:10.1007/s10964-010-9519-4.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McLachlan, J., Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., & McGregor, L. (2010). Rejection sensitivity in childhood and early adolescence: Peer rejection and protective effects of parents and friends. Journal of Relationships Research, 1, 31–40. doi:10.1375/jrr.1.1.31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nangle, D. W., Erdley, C. A., Newman, J. E., Mason, C. A., & Carpenter, E. M. (2003). Popularity, friendship quantity, and friendship quality: Interactive influences on children’s loneliness and depression. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 546–555. doi:10.1207/S15374424JCCP3204_7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Newman Kingery, J., Erdley, C. A., & Marshall, K. C. (2011). Peer acceptance and friendship as predictors of early adolescents’ adjustment across the middle school transition. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 57, 215–243. http://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/mpq/vol57/iss3/2.

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2001). Gender differences in depression. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10, 173–176. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nuijens, K. L., Teglasi, H., & Hancock, G. R. (2009). Self-perceptions, discrepancies between self-and other-perceptions, and children’s self-reported emotions. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 27, 477–493. doi:10.1177/0734282909332290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pellegrini, A. D., & Long, J. D. (2002). A longitudinal study of bullying, dominance, and victimization during the transition from primary school through secondary school. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 20, 259–280. doi:10.1348/026151002166442.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pepler, D. J., Craig, W. M., Connolly, J. A., Yuile, A., McMaster, L., & Jiang, D. (2006). A developmental perspective on bullying. Aggressive Behavior, 32, 376–384. doi:10.1002/ab.20136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pronk, R., & Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J. (2010). It’s “mean”, but what does it mean to adolescents? Aggressors’ and victims’ understanding of relational aggression. Journal of Adolescent Research, 25, 175–204. doi:10.1177/0743558409350504.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rose, A. J., & Rudolph, K. D. (2006). Review of sex differences in peer relationship processes: Potential trade-offs for the emotional and behavioral development of girls and boys. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 98–131. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.98.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rubin, K. H., Bukowski, W. M., & Parker, J. G. (2006). Peer interactions, relationships, and groups. In W. Damon, & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology (Vol. 3, Chapter 10). New York: Wiley. doi:10.1002/9780470147658.

  • Rudolph, K. D., & Asher, S. R. (2000). Adaptation and maladaptation in the peer system: Developmental processes and outcomes. In A. J. Sameroff & M. Lewis (Eds.), Handbook of developmental psychopathology (2nd ed., pp. 157–175). Dordrecht: Kluwer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Rudolph, K. D., Hammen, C., Burge, D., Lindberg, N., Herzberg, D., & Daley, S. E. (2000). Toward an interpersonal life-stress model of depression: The developmental context of stress generation. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 215–234.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sandstrom, M. J., Cillessen, A. H., & Eisenhower, A. (2003). Children’s appraisal of peer rejection experiences: Impact on social and emotional adjustment. Social Development, 12, 530–550. doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sinclair, K. R., Cole, D. A., Dukewich, T., Felton, J., Weitlauf, A. S., Maxwell, M. A., et al. (2012). Impact of physical and relational peer victimization on depressive cognitions in children and adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 41, 570–583. doi:10.1080/15374416.2012.704841.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Swenson, L., & Rose, A. (2009). Friends’ knowledge of youth internalizing and externalizing adjustment: Accuracy, bias, and the influences of gender, grade, positive friendship quality, and self-disclosure. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 887–901. doi:10.1007/s10802-009-9319-z.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tran, C. V., Cole, D. A., & Weiss, B. (2012). Testing reciprocal longitudinal relations between peer victimization and depressive symptoms in young adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 41, 353–360. doi:10.1080/15374416.2012.662674.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, J., McDonald, K. L., Rubin, K. H., & Laursen, B. (2012). Peer rejection as a social antecedent to rejection sensitivity in youth: The role of relational valuation. Personality and Individual Differences, 53, 939–942. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.07.007.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, B., Harris, V., & Catron, T. (2002). Development and initial validation of the peer-report measure of internalizing and externalizing behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 285–294. doi:10.1023/A:1015158930705.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woodhouse, S. S., Dykas, M. J., & Cassidy, J. (2012). Loneliness and peer relations in adolescence. Social Development, 21, 273–293. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2011.00611.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yoshito, K., Tseng, W., Murray-Close, D., & Crick, N. R. (2012). Developmental trajectories of Chinese children’s relational and physical aggression: Associations with social-psychological adjustment problems. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40, 1087–1097. doi:10.1007/s10802-012-9633-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., Geiger, T. C., & Crick, N. R. (2005). Relational and physical aggression, prosocial behavior, and peer relations: Gender moderation and bidirectional associations. Journal of Early Adolescence, 25, 421–452. doi:10.1177/0272431605279841.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., Hunter, T., & Pronk, R. E. (2007). A model of behaviours, peer relations and depression: Perceived social acceptance as a mediator and the divergence of perceptions. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 26, 273–285. doi:10.1521/jscp.2007.26.3.273.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., Nesdale, D., McGregor, L., Mastro, S., Goodwin, B., & Downey, G. Biased perception of peer rejection: Associations with rejection sensitivity, victimization, aggression, and friendship (under review).

  • Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., & Pronk, R. E. (2012). Relation of depression and anxiety to self- and peer-reported relational aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 38, 16–30. doi:10.1002/ab.20416.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., Pronk, R. E., Goodwin, B., Mastro, S., & Crick, N. R. (2013). Connected and isolated victims of relational aggression: Associations with peer group status and differences between girls and boys. Sex Roles, 68, 363–377. doi:10.1007/s11199-012-0239-y.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., & Skinner, E. A. (2011). The development of coping across childhood and adolescence: An integrative review and critique of research. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 35, 1–17. doi:10.1177/016502541038492.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We express our sincere appreciation to Education Queensland, and the personnel and students from the participating schools. We also thank numerous undergraduate and graduate students for assistance with data collection. The Australian Research Council, DP1096183, provided funding for this project.

Author contributions

All authors made significant contributions to this study and manuscript. M.Z-G. conceived of the study, had primary responsibility for the all aspects of study coordination, conducted most analyses, and drafted the manuscript. S.T. assisted with study conception, data collection and analysis, literature review, and writing. Portions of this paper appear in S.T.’s honour’s thesis. D.N. and G.D. assisted with study conception and measurement development. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Applied Psychology and Griffith Health Institute, Behavioural Basis of Health, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, 4222, Australia

    Melanie J. Zimmer-Gembeck, Sarah Trevaskis & Drew Nesdale

  2. Department of Psychology, Columbia University, New York City, NY, USA

    Geraldine A. Downey

Authors
  1. Melanie J. Zimmer-Gembeck
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Sarah Trevaskis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Drew Nesdale
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Geraldine A. Downey
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Melanie J. Zimmer-Gembeck.

Appendix: Peer Nomination Measure of Rejection Sensitivity

Appendix: Peer Nomination Measure of Rejection Sensitivity

  • Item 1. Who expects that other kids won’t like or accept them? (Factor loading = .80).

  • Item 2. Who worries that they will be left out of groups or activities? (Factor loading = .80).

  • Item 3. Who gets angry when they expect to be left out of groups or activities? (Factor loading = .67).

  • Item 4. Who expects to be left out of groups or activities? (Factor loading = .80).

  • Item 5. Who worries that others won’t like or accept them? (Factor loading = .85).

  • Item 6. Who overreacts when they think others won’t like or accept them (Factor loading = .71).

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Zimmer-Gembeck, M.J., Trevaskis, S., Nesdale, D. et al. Relational Victimization, Loneliness and Depressive Symptoms: Indirect Associations Via Self and Peer Reports of Rejection Sensitivity. J Youth Adolescence 43, 568–582 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-9993-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-9993-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation