Abstract
The main purpose of this study was to explore the associations among self-silencing, the perceived devaluation of women in the family and the country, and hostile/ benevolent sexism in both women and men samples. To reach the aim, we developed three scales. The self-silencing scale included silencing to (1) sexist personal experiences, (2) observed sexist communications, and (3) discrimination against women. Other scales were the devaluation of women in the family and the devaluation of women in the country. We analyzed 379 participants (248 female & 131 male) with a mean age of 21.98 (SD = 2.82). The results presented that the scales were reliable and valid. Participants, in general, had low scores on self-silencing. Men scored higher on the self-silencing scale than women. For women, benevolent sexism and devaluation of women in the family positively predicted self-silencing to sexist personal experiences. Hostile sexism and the devaluation of women in the family positively predicted self-silencing to observed sexist communications. Finally, only hostile sexism positively predicted self-silencing to discrimination against women. For men, the devaluation of women in the family positively and the devaluation of the women in the country negatively predicted self-silencing to sexist personal experiences. None of the independent variables predicted self-silencing to observed sexist communications. Finally, hostile sexism positively and the perceived devaluation of women in the country negatively predicted self-silencing to discrimination against women. Results were discussed in light of the literature on sexism and self-silencing.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ayres, M. M., Friedman, C. K., & Leaper, C. (2009). Individual and situational factors related to young women’s likelihood of confronting sexism in their everyday lives. Sex Roles, 61, 449–460. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9635-3
Bartlett, J. (2021). Introduction to power analysis: A guide to G*power, jamovi, and superpower. OSF https://osf.io/zqphw/download
Becker, J. C., & Swim, J. K. (2011). Seeing the unseen: Attention to daily encounters with sexism as way to reduce sexist beliefs. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35(2), 227–242. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684310397509
Becker, J. C., & Wright, S. C. (2011). Yet another dark side of chivalry: Benevolent sexism undermines and hostile sexism motivates collective action for social change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(1), 62–77. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022615
Chen, Z., Fiske, S. T., & Lee, T. L. (2009). Ambivalent sexism and power-related gender-role ideology in marriage. Sex Roles, 60(11–12), 765–778. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-958
Cramer, K. M., Gallant, M. D., & Langlois, M. W. (2005). Self-silencing and depression in women and men: Comparative structural equation models. Personality and Individual Differences, 39(3), 581–592. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2005.02.012
Crandall, C. S., & Martinez, R. (1996). Culture, ideology, and anti-fat attitudes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 1165–1176. https://doi.org/10.1177/2F01461672962211007
Crandall, C. S., D’Anello, S., Sakalli, N., Lazarus, E., Nejtardt, G. W., & Feather, N. T. (2001). An attribution–value model of prejudice: Anti-fat attitudes in six nations. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 30–37. https://doi.org/10.1177/2F0146167201271003
Cross, E. J., & Overall, N. C. (2019). Women experience more serious relationship problems when male partners endorse hostile sexism. European Journal of Social Psychology, 49(5), 1022–1041. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2560
Dalmış, İ., & İmamoğlu, E. O. (2000). Yetişkinlerin ve üniversite öğrencilerinin sosyo-politik kimlik algıları. Türk Psikoloji Dergisi, 15, 1–14.
DeVilles, R. (2017). Scale development: Theory and applications (4th ed.). Sage Publication.
Drury, B. J., & Kaiser, C. R. (2014). Allies against sexism: The role of men in confronting sexism. Journal of Social Issues, 70(4), 637–652. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12083
Duarte, L., & Thompson, J. (1999). Sex differences in self-silencing. Psychological Reports, 85, 145–161. https://doi.org/10.2466/2Fpr0.1999.85.1.145
Fischer, A. R., Tokar, D. M., Mergl, M., Good, G. E., Hill, M. S., & Blum, S. A. (2000). Assessing women’s feminist identity development: Studies of convergent, discriminant, and structural validity. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24, 15–29. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2000.tb01018.x
Fisher, A. R., & Bolton Holz, K. (2010). Testing a model of women’s personal sense of justice, control, well-being, and distress in the context of sexist discrimination. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 34, 297–310. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2010.01576.x
Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (1996). The ambivalent sexism inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 491–512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.491
Glick, P., Fiske, S. T., Mladinic, A., Saiz, J. L., Abrams, D., Masser, B., et al. (2000). Beyond prejudice as simple antipathy: Hostile and benevolent sexism across cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 763–775. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.5.763
Good, J. J., Moss-Racusin, C. A., & Sanchez, D. T. (2012). When do we confront? Perceptions of costs and benefits predict confronting discrimination on behalf of the self and others. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 36, 210–226. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684312440958
Greenwood, D., & Isbell, L. M. (2002). Ambivalent sexism and the dumb blonde: Men’s and women’s reactions to sexist jokes. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 26(4), 341–350. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-6402.t01-2-00073
Hammond, M. D., & Sibley, C. G. (2011). Why are benevolent sexists happier? Sex Roles, 65, 332–343. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-0017-2
Hayes, A. F., Glynn, C. J., & Shanahan, J. (2005). Validating the willingness to self-censor scale: Individual differences in the effect of the climate of opinion on opinion expression. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 17(4), 443–455. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edh072
Hurst, R. J., & Beesley, D. (2013). Perceived sexism, self-silencing, and psychological distress in college women. Sex Roles, 68, 311–320. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-012-0253-0
Hyers, L. L. (2007). Resisting prejudice every day: Exploring women’s assertive responses to anti-black racism, antisemitism, heterosexism, and sexism. Sex Roles, 56, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9142-8
Jack, D. C. (1991). Silencing the self: Women and depression. Harvard University Press.
Jack, D. C., & Dill, D. (1992). The silencing the self scale: Schemas of intimacy associated with depression in women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 16, 97–106. https://doi.org/10.1111/2Fj.1471-6402.1992.tb00242.x
Jost, J. T., & Kay, A. C. (2005). Exposure to benevolent sexism and complementary gender stereotypes: Consequences for specific and diffuse forms of system justification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(3), 498–509. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.88.3.498
Kagitcibasi, C. (2005). Autonomy and relatedness in cultural context. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 36(4), 403–422. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022105275959
Kurtiş, T. (2010). Self-silencing and well-being among Turkish women [unpublished Master’s thesis]. University of Kansas.
Laurin, K., Kay, A. C., & Shepherd, S. (2011). Self-stereotyping as a route to system justification. Social Cognition, 29, 360–375. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2011.29.3.360
Liss, M., Crawford, M., & Popp, D. (2004). Predictors and correlates of collective action. Sex Roles, 50(11–12), 771–779. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:SERS.0000029096.90835.3f
Maji, S., & Dixit, S. (2019). Self-silencing and women’s health: A review. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 65, 3–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764018814271
Moya, M., Glick, P., Expsito, F., De Lemus, S., & Hart, J. (2007). It’s for your own good: Benevolent sexism and women’s reactions to protectively justified restrictions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33(10), 1421–1434. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167207304790
Nunnally, J., & Bernstein, L. (1994). Psychometric theory. McGraw-Hill Higher.
O’Brien, R. M. (2007). A caution regarding rule of thumb for variance inflation factors. Quality & Quantity: International Journal of Methodology, 41, 673–690. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-006-9018-6
Radke, H. R., Hornsey, M. J., & Barlow, F. K. (2016). Barriers to women engaging in collective action to overcome sexism. American Psychologist, 71, 863. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0040345
Rudman, L. A., Greenwald, A. G., & McGhee, D. E. (2001). Implicit self-concept and evaluative implicit gender stereotypes: Self and ingroup share desirable traits. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(9), 1164–1178. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167201279009
Sakallı, N. (2021). Women’s responses to sexism: Justification, self-silencing, confrontation, and collective action. Turkish Psychological Articles, 24(47), 115–134. https://doi.org/10.31828/tpy1301996120210220m000035
Sakallı-Uğurlu, N. (2002). Ambivalent sexism inventory: Reliability and validity. Turkish Journal of Psychology, 17(49), 47–58.
Sakallı-Uğurlu, N., Türkoğlu, B., & Kuzlak, A. (2018). How are women and men perceived? Structure of gender stereotypes in contemporary Turkey. NESNE Psikoloji Dergisi, 6(13), 309–336. https://doi.org/10.7816/nesne-06-13-04
Shouse, S. H., & Nilsson, J. (2011). Self-silencing, emotional awareness, and eating behaviors in college women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35, 451–457. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684310388785
Sibley, C. G., Overall, N. C., & Duckitt, J. (2007). When women become more hostilely sexist toward their gender: The system-justifying effect of benevolent sexism. Sex Roles, 57(9–10), 743–754. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9306-1
Sikka, A., Vaden-Goad, L., & Waldner, L. K. (2010). Authentic self-expression: Gender, ethnicity, and culture. In D. C. Jack & A. Ali (Eds.), Silencing the self across cultures: Depression and gender in the social world. (pp. 261–284). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195398090.003.0013
Smolak, L. (2010). Gender as culture: The meanings of self-silencing in women and men. In D. C. Jack & A. Ali (Eds.), Silencing the self across cultures: Depression and gender in the social world (pp. 129–146). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195398090.003.0007
Spaccatini, F., & Roccato, M. (2021). The palliative function of sexism: Individual sexism buffers the relationship between exposure to workplace sexism and psychological distress. Sexuality & Culture, 25(3), 767–785 10.101007/s12119-020-09793-7.
Swim, J. K., & Hyers, L. L. (1999). Excuse me- what did you just say?!: Women’s public and private responses to sexist remarks. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35, 68–88. https://doi.org/10.1006/jesp.1998.1370
Swim, J. K., Hyers, L. L., Cohen, L. L., & Ferguson, M. J. (2001). Everyday sexism: Evidence for its incidence, nature, and psychological impact from three daily diary studies. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 31–53. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00200
Swim, J. K., Eyssell, K. M., Murdoch, E. Q., & Ferguson, M. J. (2010). Self-silencing to sexism. Journal of Social Issues, 66, 493–507. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2010.01658.x
Thomas, C. A., & Esses, V. M. (2004). Individual differences in reactions to sexist humor. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 7(1), 89–100. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430204039975
Tinsley, H. E., & Kass, R. A. (1979). The latent structure of the need satisfying properties of leisure activities. Journal of Leisure Research, 11(4), 278–291. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222216.1979.11969406
Vandello, J. A., Bosson, J. K., Cohen, D., Burnaford, R. M., & Weaver, J. R. (2008). Precarious manhood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(6), 1325–1339. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012453
Watson, L. B., & Grotewiel, M. (2016). The protective role of commitment to social change in the relationship between women’s sexist experiences and self-silencing. Sex Roles, 75, 139–150. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0594-1
Whiffen, V. E., Foot, M. L., & Thompson, J. M. (2007). Self-silencing mediates the link between marital conflict and depression. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 24(6), 993–1006. https://doi.org/10.1177/2F0265407507084813
Witte, T. H., & Sherman, M. F. (2002). Silencing the self and feminist identity development. Psychological Reports, 90, 1075–1083. https://doi.org/10.2466/PR0.90.4.1075-1083
Woodzicka, J. A., & LaFrance, M. (2001). Real versus imagined gender harassment. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 15–30. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00199
Yoder, J. D., Tobias, A., & Snell, A. F. (2011). When declaring “I am a feminist” matters: Labeling is linked to activism. Sex Roles, 64, 9–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9890-
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Akarsu, A.S., Sakallı, N. The associations among self-silencing, ambivalent sexism, and perceived devaluation of women in Turkey. Curr Psychol 42, 10693–10705 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02353-8
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02353-8