Abstract
Provided are empirical answers to questions about what conscious emotions underlie union intolerance and what elements of these emotions relate to willingness to join a union. We draw from the racial intolerance literature, with attention to emotions listed by religious institutions as intolerable vices. We also draw from personal websites and blogs authored by employees who espouse union hatred to identify vices seen as encouraged by unions. With this source material in hand, union intolerance is defined as sustained hatred evoked when unions are perceived by nonunion employees to encourage intolerable vices, with union members envisioned as first-line recipients of such encouragement. Turning to the natural sciences, we evoked inductive processes to identify representative vices and to construct a union intolerance scale. With samples of nonunion employees (Ns = 262, 267), a scalable dimension is revealed. Our deductive work draws from: (a) a heuristic framework, in which conscious feelings are thought to evoke an emotional readiness to act; and (b) psychodynamics, in which unacceptable emotions are thought to be projected onto targeted others. With these conceptualizations, a prediction model is advanced, with willingness to join positioned as an outcome of readiness to act stemming from intolerance. Using the sample data, a hypothesized negative relationship is shown, in which diminished willingness to join is associated with more intolerance. Contextualized in reference to the union history of sampled employees, the negative relationship is also shown as intensified in relation to claims of union discrimination. Directions for future research and implications for union recruitment are discussed.
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Notes
No personal websites and blog entries were found in conjunction with search phrases such as “why I love unions.” Instead, we found articles posted by news agencies and local and/or federated unions under titles such as “Why Unions Are Important,” “Why Join a Union,” and “Unions: The Folks Who Brought You the Weekend.” Although issues concerning “fairness,” “justice,” “voice,” and “community” were raised in these articles—issues undoubtedly infused with emotions—underlying feelings were neither cited nor expressed.
The retention of words and phrases drawn from website entries reflects the inductive side of methods used to construct and evaluate item quality (see Alanis, 2012; Ispa, 2012 for demonstrations and discussions). Evoked by these methods is less reliance on a researcher’s judgment about the expression of item content (which can be excessively formal and abstract) in favor of more reliance on a researcher’s intent to represent item content as recorded in interviews and written accounts. Also, in contrast to a self-report attitude item, a tolerance item is constructed to assess acceptance/unacceptance of what a target does rather than to assess positive/negative feelings or thoughts about a target. In this regard, the intolerance items in our study are not designed to ask employees whether they have positive or negative feelings or thoughts about a union but rather whether they were willing to tolerate or not tolerate what a union does.
Recent social science studies have also positioned anger, malicious envy, greed, and hubristic pride as predictors (e.g., Becker & Curhan, 2018; Lange & Crusius, 2015; Seuntjens et al., 2015; Smith, 1958/2017). Although these studies claim outcomes relevant to the experience of work, relationships shown are drawn from scenario-based experiments with undergraduate students. An exception is a nonexperimental self-report study conducted by Sterling et al. (2017) with office workers, in which positive associations were found between malicious envy (thoughts about depriving others of their possessions) and workplace deviance (undermining the efforts of others) and turnover intention. Also, in reference to these studies, “find text” searches yielded no matches for labor union, unions, union or nonunion employees, members, or membership.
Whether projection as a defense mechanism operates at a subliminal level (unconscious) or a liminal level (somewhere between unconscious and conscious) is an open question debated by many (e.g., Erdelyi, 1985; Sherman et al., 2009). Whereas we think unacceptable emotions may be brought to awareness as vices through instruction and recognition, the process of projecting emotions onto others may not be wholly conscious or unconscious. Rather, the process may involve a back and forth shuttle of awareness (for parallel discussions, see Clark, 1998; Kim et al., 2013). There is a difference between awareness in a state of unbearable conflict when projection is “in use” and a state of bearable conflict when projection has been used, the latter of which may include reflection and acknowledgement of conflict. It is precisely this shuttling of awareness that lends itself to the idea that some awareness may be present even when projection is in use.
Procedures and measures for the replication sample were identical to those used in the sample. Sampling was conducted during the second half of May 2019. Replication sample demographics by subgroup frequencies did not differ from sample demographics (see Table 1), χ2 ≤ 2.91, ps > .05. Also, for assumptions and rules underlying the inclusion of correlated error terms and the selection of appropriate fit indices, see Kenny (2011, 2015) and Schreiber, Nora, Stage, Barlow, and King (2006).
Employees were reminded that if employed in the public-sector that “By federal law, you are free to choose to join or not to join a union. No matter which option you choose, you WILL be covered by the union contract.”
To check for possible bias based on prior union membership, measurement and model analyses were rerun minus sampled employees who indicated prior membership. The results of these analyses were similar to those reported; fit indices were stable as were p-levels for the tested relationships. Tables of nonreported results are available from the author.
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We thank Lizabeth Barclay, Carrie Bulger, James Green, Robert Hogan, Katherine Holzer, R. James Holzworth, Rick Jacobs, David Kenny, and Michael Robb for their thoughtful and helpful comments on an earlier version of the article.
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Appendix
Appendix
Example Page of the Union Intolerance Scale
We are interested in what you think about labor unions.
Below are statements taken from various Internet blogs, in which bloggers expressed their willingness or unwillingness to tolerate a union in their work environment should they be required to join a union OR should they be given a choice to join a union.
Please read each statement carefully and decide for yourself.
Check one blank.
I am willing to tolerate a union or I am not willing to tolerate a union...
... that urges members of the union to pride themselves as the best trained, the most responsible, the most reliable, and the most dedicated employees that an employer could ever hope for.
_____ willing to tolerate _____ not willing to tolerate
... that urges members of the union to observe strict work rules set by the union contract—including break times, start and end times, and overtime—even if following the rules means that work on a job has to be delayed or restarted the next day.
_____ willing to tolerate _____ not willing to tolerate.
[Continues with 10 more items; see Table 2]
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Mellor, S. Intolerable vices: An inductive-deductive empirical analysis of union intolerance in relation to willingness to join a union. Curr Psychol 42, 2031–2048 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-01356-9
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-01356-9