Abstract
Although psychopathy has historically been associated with a lack of emotion, recent research has suggested that psychopathy may represent a tendency to externalize the experience of unpleasant emotions, including shame, which could be seen as an adaptive strategy within an evolutionary framework. However, more empirical research is needed to build on this argument. This study tested a novel evolutionary-based model involving pathways associating the impact of harsh rearing experiences (warmth and safeness experiences and traumatic shameful experiences) with psychopathic traits as well as the indirect effects of external shame and shame coping strategies in this association. This study also tested the invariance of this model across gender. A youth community sample (N = 703; 58.9% girls) completed self-report questionnaires on the impact of harsh rearing experiences, external shame, shame coping strategies, and psychopathic traits. The results suggested that the impact of harsh rearing experiences was directly and indirectly (through external shame and shame coping strategies) associated with psychopathic traits. The model partially explained the endorsement of psychopathic traits in boys and girls, although gender differences were found in some of the pathways. These findings offer support for conceptualizing psychopathic traits as an adaptive strategy to cope with the impact of harsh rearing experiences, opening new perspectives for prevention and treatment.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
From an evolutionary perspective, an adaptive response does not necessarily mean psychological well-being or socially valued outcomes. On the contrary, it means that, at least in the short run and in that particular environment, those strategies/traits are increased based on evolutionary tradeoffs (Del Giudice 2016).
Examples of professions in the high socioeconomic status groups are judges, higher education teachers, or MDs; examples for the medium socioeconomic status group are nurses, psychologists, or school teachers; and examples for the low socioeconomic group are farmers, cleaning staff, or undifferentiated worker. When the mothers’ and fathers’ professions were classified into different socioeconomic status, the highest SES coding was attributed to the family.
We also tested an alternative model in which psychopathic traits were used as independent variables and the impacts of harsh rearing experiences were used as dependent variables. Indirect effects between the independent and dependent variables were also considered through external shame and shame coping strategies. The model fit indicators were not acceptable (X2(18) = 719.459, p < .000; RMSEA = .235; CFI = .579; SRMR = .110) and were worse than those found for the baseline model under scrutiny in the current work.
For additional information on the fit indicators of all sequential models, please contact the corresponding author.
References
Andershed, H., Kerr, M., Stattin, H., & Levander, S. (2002). Psychopathic traits in non-referred youths: A new assessment tool. In E. Blaauw & L. Sheridan (Eds.), Psychopaths: Current international perspectives (pp. 131–158). Den Haag: Elsevier.
Auty, K. M., Farrington, D. P., & Coid, J. W. (2015). Intergenerational transmission of psychopathy and mediation via psychosocial risk factors. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 206, 26–31. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.114.151050.
Baumeister, R. E., Smart, L., & Boden, J. M. (1996). Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of high self-esteem. Psychological Review, 103, 5–33.
Bennett, D., Sullivan, M., & Lewis, M. (2005). Young children’s adjustment as a function of maltreatment, shame, and anger. Child Maltreatment, 10, 311–323. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559505278619.
Berntsen, D., & Rubin, D. C. (2006). Centrality of event scale: A measure of integrating a trauma into one’s identity and its relation to post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 219–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2005.01.009.
Caldwell, M. F., McCormick, D., Wolfe, J., & Umstead, D. (2012). Treatment-related changes in psychopathy features and behavior in adolescent offenders. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 39, 144–155. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854811429542.
Campbell, J. S., & Elison, J. (2005). Shame coping styles and psychopathic personality traits. Journal of Personality Assessment, 84, 96–104. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa8401_16.
Cleckley, H. (1988). The mask of sanity: An attempt to clarify some issues about the so-called psychopathic personality (6th ed.). St. MO: Mosby (original work published in 1941).
Cooke, D. J., & Michie, C. (2001). Refining the construct of psychopathy: Towards a hierarchical model. Psychological Assessment, 13, 171–188. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.13.2.171.
Damasio, A. (2006). Descartes' error: Emotion, reason and the human brain. London: Vintage (Original work published in 1994).
Del Giudice, M. (2016). The evolutionary future of psychopathology. Current Opinion in Psychology, 7, 44–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.07.010.
Del Giudice, M., & Ellis, B. J. (2015). Evolutionary foundations of developmental psychopathology. In D. Cicchetti (Ed.), Developmental psychopathology, Vol. 2: Developmental neuroscience (3rd ed., pp. 1–58). New York: Wiley.
Edens, J. F., Marcus, D. K., Lilienfeld, S. O., & Poythress, N. G., Jr. (2006). Psychopathic, not psychopath: Taxometric evidence for the dimensional structure of psychopathy. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 131–144. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.115.1.131.
Elison, J., Pulos, S., & Lennon, R. (2006). Investigating the compass of shame: The development of the compass of shame scale. Social Behavior and Personality, 34, 221–238. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2006.34.3.221.
Else-Quest, N. M., Higgins, A., Allison, C., & Morton, L. C. (2012). Gender differences in self-conscious emotional experience: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 138, 947–981. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027930.
Ferguson, C. J. (2010). Genetic contributions to antisocial personality and behavior: A meta-analytic review from an evolutionary perspective. The Journal of Social Psychology, 150, 160–180. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224540903366503.
Gao, Y., Raine, A., Chan, F., Venables, P. H., & Mednick, S. A. (2010). Early maternal and paternal bonding, childhood physical abuse and adult psychopathic personality. Psychological Medicine, 40, 1007–1016. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291709991279.
Garofalo, C., & Neumann, C. S. (2018). Psychopathy and emotion regulation: Taking stock and moving forward. In M. DeLisi (Ed.), Routledge international handbook of psychopathy and crime (pp. 76–97). London: Routledge.
Garofalo, C., Neumann, C. S., & Velotti, P. (2018). Difficulties in emotion regulation and psychopathic traits in violent offenders. Journal of Criminal Justice, 57, 116–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2018.05.013.
Gauer, G., Souza, J. A., Silveira, A. M., & Sediyama, C. Y. N. (2013). Stressful events in autobiographical memory processing: Brazilian version of the centrality of event scale. Psicologia, Reflexão e Critica, 26, 98–105. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-79722013000100011.
Gilbert, P. (2010). Compassion focused therapy. London: Routledge.
Gilbert, P. (2015). An evolutionary approach to emotion in mental health with a focus on affiliative emotions. Emotion Review, 7, 230–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073915576552.
Glenn, A. L. (2019). Early life predictors of callous-unemotional and psychopathic traits. Infant Mental Health Journal, 40, 39–53. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.21757.
Glenn, A. L., Kuzban, R., & Raine, A. (2011). Evolutionary theory and psychopathy. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 16, 371–380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2011.03.009.
Gold, J., Sullivan, M., & Lewis, M. (2011). The relation between abuse and violent delinquency: The conversion of shame to blame in juvenile offenders. Child Abuse & Neglect, 35, 459–467. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2011.02.007.
Goss, K., Gilbert, P., & Allan, S. (1994). An exploration of shame measures-I: The “other as Shamer scale”. Personality and Individual Differences, 17, 713–717. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(94)90149-X.
Gretton, H. M., Hare, R. D., & Catchpole, R. E. H. (2004). Psychopathy and offending from adolescence to adulthood: A 10-year follow-up. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 636–645. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.72.4.636.
Gross, J. J. (2014). Emotion regulation: Conceptual and empirical foundations. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 3–20). New York: Guilford Press.
Gross, C. A., & Hansen, N. E. (2000). Clarifying the experience of shame: The role of attachment style, gender, and investment in relatedness. Personality and Individual Differences, 28, 897–907. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00148-8.
Hare, R. D. (2003). The Hare psychopathy checklist-revised (2nd ed.). Toronto: Multi-Health Systems.
Hare, R. D., & Neumann, C. S. (2006). The PCL-R assessment of psychopathy: Development, structural proprieties, and new directions. In C. Patrick (Ed.), Handbook of psychopathy (pp. 58–90). New York: Guildford Press.
Hare, R. D., & Neumann, C. S. (2008). Psychopathy as a clinical and empirical construct. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 217–246. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091452.
Harper, J. M. (2011). Regulating and coping with shame. In R. Trnka, K. Balcar, & M. Kuska (Eds.), Reconstructing emotional spaces: From experience to regulation (pp. 189–206). Prague: Prague of College of Psychological Studies Press.
Harper, F., & Arias, I. (2004). The role of shame in predicting adult anger and depressive symptoms among victims of child psychological maltreatment. Journal of Family Violence, 19, 367–375. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-004-0681-x.
Hejdenberg, J., & Andrews, B. (2011). The relationship between shame and different types of anger: A theory-based investigation. Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 1278–1282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.02.024.
Heleniak, C., Jenness, J. L., Vander Stoep, A., McCauley, E., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2016). Childhood maltreatment exposure and disruptions in emotion regulation: A transdiagnostic pathway to adolescent internalizing and externalizing psychopathology. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 40, 394–415. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-015-9735-z.
Henry, J., Dionne, G., Viding, E., Vitaro, F., Brendgen, M., Tremblay, R. E., & Boivin, M. (2018). Early warm-rewarding parenting moderates the genetic contributions to callous–unemotional traits in childhood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 59, 1282–1288. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12918.
Holmqvist, R. (2008). Psychopathy and affect consciousness in young criminal offenders. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23, 209–224. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260507309341.
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118.
Jonason, P. K., Icho, A., & Ireland, K. (2016). Resources, harshness, and unpredictability: The socioeconomic conditions associated with the dark triad traits. Evolutionary Psychology, 14, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1177/1474704915623699.
Kim, J., Talbot, N., & Cicchetti, D. (2009). Childhood abuse and current interpersonal conflict: The role of shame. Child Abuse & Neglect, 33, 362–371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2008.10.003.
Kivisto, J., Kivisto, L., Moore, T., & Rhatigan, D. (2011). Antisociality and intimate partner violence: The facilitating role of shame. Violence and Victims, 26, 758–773. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.26.6.758.
Kosson, D. S., Vitacco, M. J., Swogger, M. T., & Steuerwald, B. L. (2016). Emotional experiences of the psychopath. In C. B. Gacono (Ed.), Personality and clinical psychology series. The clinical and forensic assessment of psychopathy: A practitioner's guide (pp. 73–95). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group: New York.
Kubak, F. A., & Salekin, R. T. (2009). Psychopathy and anxiety in children and adolescents: New insights on developmental pathways to offending. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 31, 271–284. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-009-9144-2.
Matos, M., Pinto-Gouveia, J., Gilbert, P., Duarte, C., & Figueiredo, C. (2015). The other as Shamer scale — 2: Development and validation of a short version of a measure of external shame. Personality and Individual Difference, 74, 6–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.09.037.
Mealey, L. (1995). The sociobiology of sociopathy: An integrated evolutionary model. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 18, 523–599.
Meloy, J. R. (1988). The psychopathic mind: Origins, dynamics, and treatment. Northvale: Aronson.
Millon, T., & Davis, R. D. (1998). Ten subtypes of psychopathy. In T. Millon, M. Simonsen, M. Birket-Smith, & R. Davis (Eds.), Psychopathy: Antisocial, criminal and violent behaviour (pp. 161–170). New York: Guildford Press.
Morrison, D., & Gilbert, P. (2001). Social rank, shame and anger in primary and secondary psychopaths. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 12, 330–356. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585180110056867.
Mullins-Nelson, J. L., Salekin, R. T., & Leistico, A. M. R. (2006). Psychopathy, empathy, and perspective-taking ability in a community sample: Implications for the successful psychopathy concept. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health, 5, 133–149. https://doi.org/10.1080/14999013.2006.10471238.
Muthén, L. K. & Muthén, B. O. (2010). Mplus user's guide (6th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Author
Nathanson, D. L. (1992). Shame and pride: Affect, sex, and the bird of the self. New York: Norton.
Neumann, C. S., Schmitt, D. S., Carter, R., Embley, I., & Hare, R. D. (2012). Psychopathic traits in females and males across the globe. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 30, 557–574. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.2038.
Nystrӧm, M., & Mikkelsen, F. (2012). Psychopathy-related personality traits and shame management strategies in adolescents. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 519–537. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260512455512.
Patch, E. A., & Figueredo, A. J. (2017). Childhood stress, life history, psychopathy, and sociosexuality. Personality and Individual Differences, 115, 108–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.04.023.
Pechorro, P., Andershed, H., Ray, J. V., Maroco, J., & Gonçalves, R. A. (2015). Validation of the youth psychopathic traits inventory and youth psychopathic traits inventory – Short version among incarcerated juvenile delinquents. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 37, 576–586. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-015-9490-1.
Pechorro, P., Ribeiro Da Silva, D., Andershed, H., Rijo, D., & Gonçalves, R. A. (2017). Psychometric properties and measurement invariance of the youth psychopathic traits inventory - short version among Portuguese youth. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 37, 576–586. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-017-9597-7.
Ribeiro da Silva, D., Rijo, D., & Salekin, R. T. (2012). Child and adolescent psychopathy: A state-of-the-art reflection on the construct and etiological theories. Journal of Criminal Justice, 40, 269–277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2012.05.005.
Ribeiro da Silva, D., Rijo, D., & Salekin, R. T. (2013). Child and adolescent psychopathy: Assessment issues and treatment needs. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 18, 71–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2012.10.003.
Ribeiro da Silva, D., Rijo, D., & Salekin, R. T. (2015). The evolutionary roots of psychopathy. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 21, 85–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2015.01.006.
Ribeiro da Silva, D., Salekin, R. T., & Rijo, D. (2019a). Psychopathic severity profiles: A latent profile analysis in youth samples with implications for the diagnosis of conduct disorder. Journal of Criminal Justice, 60, 74–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2018.12.003.
Ribeiro da Silva, D., Vagos, P., & Rijo, D. (2019b). An evolutionary model to conceptualize psychopathic traits across community and forensic male youth. Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 63, 574–596. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X18823624.
Richter, A., Gilbert, P., & McEwan, K. (2009). Development of an early memories of warmth and safeness scale and its relationship to psychopathology. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory. Research and Practice, 82, 171–184. https://doi.org/10.1348/147608308X395213.
Salekin, R. T., Tippey, J. G., & Allen, A. D. (2012). Treatment of conduct problem youth with interpersonal callous traits using mental models: Measurement of risk and change. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 30, 470–486. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.2025.
Schriber, R. A., Chung, J. M., Sorensen, K. S., & Robins, R. W. (2017). Dispositional contempt: A first look at the contemptuous person. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 113, 280–309. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000101.
Sevecke, K., Franke, S., Kosson, D., & Krischer, M. (2016). Emotional dysregulation and trauma predicting psychopathy dimensions in female and male juvenile offenders. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 10, 43–56. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-016-0130-7.
Shiner, R. (2009). The development of personality disorders: Perspectives from normal personality development in childhood and adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 715–734. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579409000406.
Spice, A., Viljoen, J. L., Douglas, K. S., & Hart, S. D. (2015). Remorse, psychopathology, and psychopathy among adolescent offenders. Law and Human Behavior, 39, 451–462. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000137.
Tangney, J. P., Stuewig, J., Mashek, D., & Hastings, M. (2011). Assessing jail inmates’ proneness to shame and guilt: Feeling bad about the behavior or the self? Criminal Justice and Behavior, 38, 710–734. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854811405762.
Vagos, P., Ribeiro da Silva, D., Brazão, N., Rijo, D., & Gilbert, P. (2016). Dimensionality and measurement invariance of the other as Shamer scale across diverse adolescent samples. Personality and Individual Differences, 98, 289–296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.04.046.
Vagos, P., Ribeiro da Silva, D., Brazão, N., Rijo, D., & Gilbert, P. (2017). The early memories of warmth and safeness scale for adolescents: Cross-sample validation of the complete and brief versions. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 24, 793–804. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.2059.
Vagos, P., Ribeiro da Silva, D., Brazão, N., & Rijo, D. (2018). The centrality of event scale in Portuguese adolescents: Validity evidence based on internal structure and on relations to other variables. Assessment, 25, 527–538. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191116651137.
Vagos, P., Ribeiro da Silva, D., Brazão, N., Rijo, D., & Elison, J. (2019). Psychometric properties of the compass of shame scale: Testing for measurement invariance across community and forensic adolescent samples. Child & Youth Care Forum, 48, 93–110. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-018-9474-x.
van Baardewijk, Y., Andershed, H., Stegge, H., Nilsson, K., Scholte, E., & Vermeiren, R. (2010). Development and tests of short versions of the youth psychopathic traits inventory and the youth psychopathic traits inventory-child version. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 26, 122–128. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000017.
Velotti, P., D’aguanno, M., Garofalo, C., & Rogier, G. (2016). Dealing with shame–the ‘psychopathic way’: Preliminary investigation for a new developmental framework of psychopathic traits. European Psychiatry, 33, S465. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2016.01.1692.
Verona, E., Sadeh, N., & Javdani, S. (2010). The influences of gender and culture on child and adolescent psychopathy. In R. T. Salekin & D. R. Lynam (Eds.), Handbook of child and adolescent psychopathy (pp. 317–342). New York: Guilford Press.
Viding, E., & Larson, H. (2010). Genetics of child and adolescent psychopathy. In R. T. Salekin & D. R. Lynam (Eds.), Handbook of child and adolescent psychopathy (pp. 113–134). New York: Guilford Press.
Waller, R., Gardner, F., Viding, E., Shaw, D. S., Dishion, T. J., Wilson, M. N., & Hyde, L. W. (2014). Bidirectional associations between parental warmth, callous unemotional behavior, and behavior problems in high-risk preschoolers. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42, 1275–1285. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-014-9871-z.
Weems, C. F., & Stickle, T. R. (2012, December). Mediation, incremental validity, and novel intervention development: Introduction to a special issue on youth anxiety and related problems. Child & Youth Care Forum, 41, 509–515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-012-9191-9.
Acknowledgements
We are extremely grateful to all youth who took part in this study, as well as to institutions for their help in facilitating data collection.
Funding
This work was supported by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology [grant number SFRH/BD/99795/2014]; by FEDER - Fundo Europeu de Desenvolvimento Regional funds through the COMPETE 2020–Operational Program for Competitiveness and Internationalization (POCI) and Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology [grant number POCI-01-0145-FEDER-016724].
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Research Involving Human Participants and/or Animals
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
This article does not contain any studies with animals performed by any of the authors.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ribeiro da Silva, D., Vagos, P. & Rijo, D. Conceptualizing psychopathic traits from an evolutionary-based perspective: An empirical study in a community sample of boys and girls. Curr Psychol 40, 3931–3943 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-00353-3
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-00353-3