Introduction

Love and Relationships: An Overview of Theoretical Perspectives

Love appears to be a universal phenomenon that transcends cultural boundaries, and it has become a prominent subject of scientific investigation in recent decades. As a result, various theories and frameworks have emerged to shed light on the complex nature of love and its role in relationships.

One of the earliest attempts to classify and understand romantic love was made by Rubin (1970), who proposed a taxonomy of three elements: intimacy, attachment, and affection. Building upon this work, Lee (1973) developed the Color Theory of Love, categorizing love styles into primary and secondary types. Lee identified three primary styles - Eros, Ludus, and Storge - and suggested that combinations give rise to secondary styles, such as Mania, Pragma, and Agape (Lee, 1973). Another influential theory is Sternberg’s triangular theory of love (1988), which emphasizes three core components: intimacy, passion, and commitment. These elements form the “vertices of the triangle” that define and shape different types of love, which can evolve and change over time (Sternberg, 1986).

Evolutionary Psychology also provides insights into the origins and functions of love. It proposes that love has evolved as an attachment mechanism essential for preserving and enhancing psychological and physical well-being, playing a pivotal role in human development (Fletcher et al., 2015). Attachment Theory, developed by Bowlby (1980) and expanded by Bowlby and Ainsworth (1991), considers attachment a fundamental mechanism in human beings. It suggests that through continuous interactions with attachment figures, individuals develop internal models that influence their expectations, self-perception, and relationship patterns. These internal models and emotional processes established in childhood significantly impact how individuals experience romantic relationships in adulthood (Hazan & Shaver, 1987). For instance, individuals with secure and positive attachment experiences in their early relationships tend to feel more comfortable with their sexuality, exhibit emotional involvement in romantic partnerships, and demonstrate a greater capacity for trust (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007; Shaver et al., 1988) On the other hand, those with anxious/ambivalent attachment patterns may fear abandonment, seek excessive approval from their partners, and exhibit dependent behavior (Shaver et al., 1988). Similarly, individuals with avoidant attachment patterns may avoid intimacy and emotional involvement stemming from childhood emotional alienation from romantic relationships (Shaver et al., 1988).

The notion of detachment is central to Bauman’s model of “liquid love” (2004), where, due to the era of technological globalization, individualism is increasingly entrenched, with the individual taking center stage in the social universe. One of the reasons behind this structural change seems to have to do with the transition from the industrial era to the global era (post-modernist), which brought significant transformations at the level of cultural values, identity, and human relationships, namely when it comes to romantic love relationships. The concept of “liquid love” comes from this phenomenon of the transfiguration of the social condition to a “liquid modernity,“ where love is, above all, an instrument to meet the needs of individuals. Bauman (2004), when mentioning the concept of “liquid love,“ emphasizes the fragility with which love relationships are experienced in contemporary society. Love relationships become unstable, volatile, ephemeral, and banal due to the fear of establishing lasting, meaningful bonds. Moreover, it should be noted that the developmental process of transition to adulthood in modern societies has become more tolerant and delayed, delaying the fulfillment of adult roles until the end of the third decade of life, creating a more flexible trajectory (Brandão et al., 2012), including the subjective experience of love.

Love in Adulthood

According to more classical theories of human development, such as Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development (1959), the period of life from 18 to 25 years old, now commonly referred to as emerging adulthood (Arnett, 2000), is a phase where the primary developmental challenge is the conflict between Intimacy and Isolation. Once individuals have established their sense of identity during adolescence, they enter this phase with a desire to form close and meaningful romantic relationships. As a result, there is a greater inclination to explore love and sexuality rather than commit to long-term partnerships (Arnett, 2004; Shulman & Connolly, 2013). However, when faced with a romantic breakup, emerging adults often struggle with the emotional aftermath, experiencing mood swings, sadness, and fear of being alone (Carter et al., 2018). These feelings can lead to prolonged experiences of loneliness and isolation.

Middle adulthood is the other significant phase in the adult life cycle, which spans from 45 to 65 years old. During this phase, the primary developmental challenge is also related to establishing deep connections and expressing love toward others. It is characterized by a conflict called Generativity versus Stagnation (Erikson, 1993; McAdams, 2013). Middle adulthood is a stage where individuals display a continued concern for the well-being of future generations, both biologically and culturally. It is marked by introspection, creativity, and wisdom, which manifest in the generation of new ideas and contributions through family roles, friendships, and community involvement. Failure to successfully resolve this stage can result in frustration and a sense of stagnation due to an inability to impact others positively (McAdams, 2013).

In addition to various physical, psychological, and social changes during this life cycle stage, age and experience appear to contribute to greater maturity in romantic relationships. Individuals in middle adulthood become more familiar with their romantic partners, and their relationships are characterized by commitment, companionship, and the pursuit of shared goals (Zimmer-Gembeck & Ducat, 2010). In addition, as middle adulthood is a stage marked by generativity, there is a heightened awareness that translates into improved communication, reduced need for control, and decreased jealousy within the dynamics of a couple’s interactions (Lantagne & Furman, 2017).

Capacity to Love

The study of the capacity to love, introduced by Kernberg (2011), focuses on the ability to invest in and maintain mature and committed romantic relationships. From an ontogenic perspective, the capacity to love is seen as the culmination of a relational process that begins in childhood and continues throughout the lifespan. This model recognizes the significance of object relations and introjection mechanisms in understanding personality, as object relations form primarily in infancy and develop throughout an individual’s life (Collins & Sroufe, 1999). Kernberg (1974) proposes a continuum of stages related to the capacity to love and remain in love, known as the Capacity to Love Model (Kernberg, 1974, 1995, 2011, 2012), encompassing components essential for a stable and healthy love relationship.

The first component, “falling in love,“ corresponds to passionate love and the state of infatuation (Kernberg, 1974). It involves some idealization of the romantic partner, encompassing physical characteristics, sexual desire, proximity, and emotional connection. Although it is a phase of enchantment and interest, the author highlights that being in love and staying in love is a process that evolves through shared experiences and the nature of the idealization between partners. On the other hand, showing interest in the other’s life project signifies curiosity about their emotions, ideals, ambitions, aspirations, and life history. When partners identify with these values, it allows for a deeper exploration of intellectual interests. The relationship becomes a source of personal and marital enrichment—the greater the interest in the other’s life project, the greater the gratitude towards the shared world and the loving relationship.

“Basic trust” emerges as a fundamental component for the maturation of romantic love. It enables the exploration of fears, emotions, weaknesses, individual doubts, and conflicting aspects of the self. This capacity must be reciprocal to contribute to individual growth and, subsequently, the couples. It is associated with secure attachment during childhood, as individuals without it tend to develop more anxious, fragile, and vulnerable relational patterns. “Capacity to forgive and ask for forgiveness” allows romantic partners to openly communicate about conflicts without inducing guilt or frustration in each other. It also facilitates reflection and recognition of aggression that may arise in long-term relationships. As an expression of mature love, “gratitude and humility” emerge as a deep sense of appreciation for the existence of the beloved partner and the love experienced. It fosters individual and marital growth through mutual support and comfort.

Given that conflicts and discrepancies are inevitable in marital dynamics, it becomes crucial to understand and accept relational differences through dialogue and the sharing of pleasures and experiences. To establish this conjugal bond, the couple must find an “ideal ego,“ which involves accepting dissimilarities and managing expectations, sexual dynamics, and individual value systems. A “common life project” based on commitment and mature love is also necessary. Alongside mature love, Kernberg (2011) emphasizes the importance of mature dependence as a relevant component. It involves a mutual capacity to receive care from others without shame or guilt, particularly in challenging or disabling experiences (e.g., pathologies). It is a love associated with well-being and gratitude for the love received.

For mature love to endure, the relationship must be grounded in an “acceptance of loss, grief, and jealousy” (Kernberg, 2011). Love should be understood as free, not forced or coerced. The individuality of each partner and the mutual acceptance within the couple must coexist when facing relationship losses or conflicts (Kernberg, 1995).

Building upon this model, the (in)ability to love has been associated with psychopathological and dysfunctional conditions, such as Narcissistic Personality Disorder (Kapusta et al., 2018). In addition, individuals with this clinical profile tend to resist maintaining stable relationships due to the fear of scorn, leading to avoidance (Kernberg, 2012). However, despite these findings, there is a lack of studies exploring the role of love in relationships from an individual perspective.

Love, Well-being, and Aging

For a long time, research focused on the study of love during younger developmental stages, neglecting adult and older age groups. This perpetuated the myth that romantic love was only relevant for adolescents and young adults, diminishing its importance as individuals grew older (Clemente et al., 2020). However, love is a complex and multidimensional construct encompassing behaviors, feelings, and thoughts, resulting in an emotional experience that can vary based on social context and individual characteristics.

Recent research has explored the association between love and sociodemographic and psychosocial variables, aiming to understand how individuals conceptualize love and their relationships. The desire for interpersonal closeness is considered a fundamental human impulse that satisfies the need for belonging and is crucial for personal and societal growth. Furthermore, love is believed to significantly predict positive emotions related to happiness, life satisfaction, and overall well-being (Kim & Hatfield, 2004). Therefore, understanding the role of love in individuals’ well-being and how this relationship varies with age becomes an important question to address.

Well-being has become a crucial element for a healthy and fulfilling life. The World Health Organization (WHO, 2015) defines health as a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, emphasizing that well-being involves not just the absence of physical illness but also intellectual, emotional, and social factors. Various perspectives and models have emerged to operationalize the concept of well-being, ranging from hedonic approaches to eudaimonic perspectives.

Subjective Well-Being (SWB), rooted in hedonic philosophy, focuses on pleasure, happiness, and gratification (Ryan & Deci, 2001). It aims to assess individuals’ satisfaction levels through subjective evaluations based on the frequency of positive and negative experiences. SWB comprises three essential components: life satisfaction, a positive mood, and the absence of a negative mood, all of which contribute to an individual’s subjective experience (Diener, 1984).

Psychological Well-Being (PWB), influenced by the Aristotelian concept of eudaimonia, describes well-being as a by-product of virtue, pursuing personal potential, capacities, and goals (Ryff, 1989, 2013). PWB encompasses six dimensions: self-acceptance, positive relationships with others, autonomy, mastery of the environment, life purpose, and personal growth. These dimensions relate to self-actualization, self-knowledge, and the experience of fulfilling one’s potential (Ryff, 1989).

Social Well-Being (SoWB), proposed by Keyes (1998), focuses on interpersonal perceptions. It comprises five components: social integration, social contribution, social coherence, social acceptance, and social actualization. SoWB emphasizes the importance of social relationships and engagement with the community for overall well-being.

Research has explored the correlation between well-being and romantic relationships across different ages. Regarding SWB, intimate relationships and the quality of romantic partnerships are positively associated with positive emotions and life satisfaction (Diener & Lucas, 2000). Relationship satisfaction appears to influence physical and psychological health (Cohen, 2004).

According to Carstensen et al. (2011), individuals report more positive emotional experiences as they age, reflecting greater emotional wisdom. Despite the losses associated with aging, older individuals selectively invest in pleasurable and emotionally meaningful activities, contributing to increased life satisfaction (Carstensen, 2021). Emotional experience seems to improve with age, leading to a decrease in the frequency of negative emotions. Furthermore, older individuals tend to exhibit higher levels of gratitude, positively associated with age and subjective well-being (Chopik et al., 2019).

PWB has been associated with higher self-esteem, life satisfaction, and generativity (Ryff, 1989). Cheng and Yim (2008) highlight the close relationship between psychological well-being and psychological adjustment, with forgiveness playing a role in maintaining PWB and life satisfaction, particularly in middle-aged and older adults.

As the personal and interpersonal dimensions of well-being are intertwined in the PWB model, several personality variables are believed to contribute to personal growth and life satisfaction. Positive affectivity and extroversion, for example, have been associated with greater personal growth and life satisfaction, while greater life satisfaction is linked to a decrease in negative states like depression or loneliness (Dumitrache et al., 2018; Irigaray et al., 2011).

Limited empirical data are available on SoWB, but existing research suggests a positive relationship between its five dimensions and life satisfaction, as well as a significantly negative association with negative affect (Gallagher et al., 2009). In addition, SWB seems to increase positively with age, as greater emotional wisdom corresponds to higher engagement in pro-social behaviors (Carstensen, 2011).

Regarding gender differences, consistent findings on romantic experience and love styles are lacking. However, Neto (2021) suggests that women may be more willing to engage in unconditional and love-oriented approaches, emphasizing intimacy and mutual commitment. On the other hand, Regan (2016) found that men tend to hold more romanticized views of relationships and are more accepting and understanding of their partners.

Although the experiences of romantic love and the loss of love are universal, research on gender differences remains inconclusive. Recent studies have shown that the end of a romantic relationship is often experienced more intensely by women, who are more likely to report higher levels of depressive symptoms, distress, jealousy, rumination, and grief (Stoessel et al., 2011; Verhallen, 2019). However, Hartman (2017) suggests that romantic loss similarly affects the well-being of men, leading to a sense of disconnection, emotional distress, and sadness.

Contemporary research has been expanding the study of gender differences, challenging established psychological conceptions and norms that have shaped the interpretation of relationships between men and women throughout developmental psychology. Nevertheless, due to the ambiguity of these findings, it is crucial to deepen our understanding of the relationships between love and well-being. Moreover, a greater understanding of these connections will enhance our comprehension of human relationships as a whole.

The Present Study

Following this literature review and contextualization of the theme, it becomes evident that the capacity to love and its differentiation across the lifespan is an emerging area of research with limited existing studies. Therefore, the significance of this study lies in delving deeper into this intricate construct, specifically examining the perspectives of love and how they manifest at distinct stages of development, particularly among Emerging Adults (aged 18 to 25) and Middle-Aged Adults (aged 45 to 65). These life stages are marked by developmental challenges related to intimacy building with others and the generative construction of the self. Therefore, the main objectives of this study are:

  1. 1.

    To analyze whether there are differences in the capacity to love in different age groups, specifically between the Emerging and Midlife Adult stages;

  2. 2.

    To analyze whether there are gender differences (men and women) regarding the capacity to love;

  3. 3.

    To analyze the dimensions of the capacity to love that predict well-being by controlling for the effect of age and gender.

Method

Participants

The total sample was composed of 535 participants, 436 (81.5%) women and 99 (18.5%) men, 282 (52.7%) aged between 18 and 25 years (M = 21.88; SD = 1.80) and 253 (47.3%) between 45 and 65 years (M = 52.24; SD = 5.39), who identify themselves as cisgender.

Most participants had a medium income and social status (66.2%), followed by medium/low income and social status (18.1%) and medium/high income and social status (12.7%). As for academic qualifications, the sample was mainly composed of individuals who had completed a Bachelor’s degree (48.2%) and lived in an urban environment (68%). Most participants were single (55.5%) and heterosexual (89.0%). Considering the age groups separately, both groups turned out to be similar in terms of the aforementioned sociodemographic variables, the only exception being marital status, since most of the middle-aged adults were married (68.0%), as compared to the emerging adults who were generally single (98.6%) (cf. Table 1). It is worth noting that since Portuguese legislation is similar for both statuses, participants who lived together and participants who were married were put in the same group.

Table 1 Sociodemographic characteristics of the sample
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Measures

Sociodemographic Questionnaire

This study used a sociodemographic questionnaire to collect personal information about the participants. The questionnaire provided information on gender, age, socioeconomic level (low, middle-low, medium, middle-high, high), academic qualifications, where they live (rural or urban environment), marital status, and sexual orientation.

Capacity to Love Inventory (CTL-I) Portuguese Version (Fonte et al., 2022; Kapusta et al., 2018)

The ICAI-I is a 41-item inventory developed by Kapusta et al. (2018) to assess the capacity for love in individuals across six dimensions. It uses a four-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 4 (Strongly Agree). The inventory evaluates the following dimensions: (a) interest in the partner’s life projects (items 1 to 7), (b) basic trust (items 8 to 16), (c) gratitude (items 17 to 23), (d) ideal ego (items 24 to 31), (e) permanence of sexual passion (items 32 and 33), and (f) acceptance of loss, mourning, and jealousy (items 34 to 41).

The empirical validation of the ICAI-I demonstrated its validity as a construct due to its internal consistency, stability, and test-retest reliability. The internal consistency was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, which ranged from 0.67 to 0.90. Factor analysis revealed positive associations between the ICAI-I scores and the quality of love relationships and negative correlations with depressive symptomatology, promiscuity, and pathological narcissism.

In this study, Cronbach’s alpha was used to analyze the internal consistency, with a total scale alpha of 0.94. The subscales demonstrated α values of 0.81 for interest in the partner’s life projects, 0.89 for basic trust, 0.74 for acceptance of loss, grief, and jealousy, 0.85 for permanence of sexual passion, 0.89 for gratitude, and 0.89 for the ideal ego. These results indicate reasonable internal consistency for acceptance of loss, grief, and jealousy, very good for the total scale and good for the remaining subscales (Pestana & Gageiro, 2020).

Mental Health Continuum Scale (MHC-SF) - (Fonte et al., 2020; Keyes et al., 2008)

The self-report instrument, adapted for the Portuguese population by Fonte et al. (2020), aims to assess positive mental health. It consists of 14 items that measure three dimensions of well-being: emotional/subjective well-being, social well-being, and psychological well-being.

The emotional dimension comprises three items (items 1 to 3) focusing on happiness, life satisfaction, and interest in life. The social dimension includes five items (items 4 to 8) that assess the acceptance of others, social integration, social coherence, social contribution, and social growth. The psychological dimension encompasses six items (items 9 to 14) exploring self-acceptance, autonomy, purpose in life, personal growth, environmental mastery, and relationships with others.

Using a 6-point Likert-type scale ranging from “Never” to “Every day,“ the instrument’s psychometric properties for the Portuguese population indicate its validity and reliability. In the present study, the overall scale demonstrated good internal consistency with α = 0.94. At the same time, social well-being had α = 0.87, emotional well-being had α = 0.91, and psychological well-being had α = 0.92. These results suggest a good internal consistency for social well-being and very good consistency for emotional and psychological well-being dimensions.

Data Collection

Data collection was initiated after the Ethics and Deontological Committee for Scientific Research of the Faculty of Psychology, Education and Sports, Lusófona University approved the study. The data collection was conducted between January and March of 2022. Participants were invited to answer a questionnaire shared online through digital and social contacts to answer the established objectives. Informed consent was shared with the participants before they started completing the protocol (e.g., objectives, inclusion criteria, methodological procedures, and confidentiality issues) so that they had access to the information regarding the study. Due to the optional nature of the study, the possibility of withdrawal was clarified without any implication. As inclusion criteria, the conditions necessary to be part of the study were that participants belonged to the developmental phase of emerging adulthood (18 to 25 years) or middle-age phase (45 to 65 years) and were residents of Portugal.

Data Analysis Procedure

The data analysis was conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics version 28. Initially, a descriptive analysis was performed for the variables under study. Two MANOVAs (Multivariate Analysis of Variance) were then conducted to examine the differences in the capacity to love between different age groups and the significance of gender on this capacity. Assumptions of multivariate normality and homogeneity of the variance-covariance matrix were checked. Multivariate normality was validated through the residuals plot, while Box’s M test was used for testing homogeneity.

Homogeneity assumption was not rejected for gender (M = 25.82; F (21, 115675.52) = 1.20; p = .237) but was rejected for age groups (M = 89.27; F = (21, 1019544.59) = 4.20; p < .001). Nevertheless, since the sample sizes of emerging and middle-aged adults were similar, the MANOVA was considered robust to this violation (Pestana & Gageiro, 2020).

Subsequently, ANOVAs (Analysis of Variance) were performed for each dependent variable, and for dimensions where homogeneity assumptions were violated, Welch’s F-statistic was used. The p-values were adjusted with Bonferroni corrections.

To investigate which dimensions of the capacity to love predict well-being, three hierarchical multiple linear regressions were conducted while controlling for the effect of age and gender. Assumptions of linearity, normal distribution, and homogeneity of errors were validated through residual plots. Durbin-Watson statistic validated the independence of errors assumption (d ≈ 2 (± 0.4) (Marôco, 2021). Multicollinearity was checked with the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) values, which were all below 10, indicating no issues (Myers, 1986). It is worth noting that the three hierarchical multiple linear regressions were initially conducted while controlling for the effect of age, marital status, and gender. However, due to the high correlation between marital status and age, multicollinearity issues emerged, and this variable was removed from the final analysis.

A significance level of 0.05 was used for all analyses.

Results

Descriptive Analysis of Scales

Descriptive analyses of the different scales under study were performed. According to Table 2, among the 535 participants, the dimension of interest in the other’s life project (M = 3.49; SD = 0.40) was the capacity that showed the highest values, followed by the dimension of gratitude (M = 3.45; SD = 0.49). As regards to well-being, participants were found to have obtained lower levels than the mean reference values of the MHC-SF - Portuguese version (Fonte et al., 2020). When the two age groups were separately analysed, it was found that, both in emerging and middle-aged adults, the dimension interest in the other’s life project continued to be the one with the highest values, followed by the dimension of gratitude. However, as far as well-being is concerned, only in emerging adults was verified what had occurred for the whole sample - all dimensions showed lower levels than the reference values for the Portuguese population. For middle aged adults, this was not observed. In fact, for middle-aged adults, only psychological well-being revealed mean values that were lower than the reference values, while both emotional well-being and social well-being showing higher mean values.

Table 2 Descriptive analysis of CTL and MHC-SF scales
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Differences in the Capacity to Love between Different Age Groups, Specifically between the Phases Emerging Adult and Middle-Aged Adult

Using the MANOVA to answer the first objective, results showed that the age groups have a significant effect on the capacity to love (𝛬= 0.86; F (6,528) = 14.42, p < .001; \({\eta }_{p}^{2}\) = 0.141). By analysing Table 3, results indicated that emerging adults demonstrate greater capacity to love on all dimensions except acceptance of loss, grief, and jealousy. These differences all proved to be statistically significant.

Table 3 Differences in the capacity to love according to age groups
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Differences Between Genders (Women and men) in Relation to the Capacity to Love

By using MANOVA to answer the second objective, no significant effects of gender on the capacity to love were identified (𝛬= 0.99; F (6, 528) = 1.19, p = .308; \({\eta }_{p}^{2}\) = 0.013), although women individuals in the sample, showed greater capacity to love on all dimensions except acceptance of loss, jealousy, and grief (see Table 4).

Table 4 Differences in the capacity for love according to gender
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Dimensions of the Capacity to Love that Predict Well-being

To answer the third objective, three hierarchical regressions with two blocks were performed. In the first block, age groups and gender were considered as independent variables in order to control the effect of these variables. In the second block, the dimensions of the capacity to love were included.

As regards emotional well-being, the initial model with only the demographic variables proved to be statistically significant (F (2, 532) = 7.61, p < .001, R2 = 0.028), with age groups and gender explaining 2.8% of the variance of emotional well-being. The introduction of the dimensions of capacity to love into the model significantly increased the explained variance in 18.7% (F (6, 526) = 20.93, p < .001). This model, with all eight independent variables included, was statistically significant and explained a total variance of 21.5% (F (8, 526) = 18.02, p < .001, R2 = 0.215). In the final model, only basic trust and acceptance of loss, grief and jealousy proved to be significant predictors of emotional well-being (see Table 5), with both being positive predictors.

Table 5 Hierarchical regression for predicting well-being
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In relation to social well-being, the initial model was statistically significant (F (2, 532) = 6.70, p = .001, R2 = 0.025), with age groups and gender explaining 2.5% of the variance of social well-being. After including the dimensions of the capacity to love in the model, the explained variance significantly increased 8.6% (F (6, 526) = 8.47, p < .001). The model with the eight independent variables was statistically significant and explained a total variance of 11.0% (F (8, 526) = 8.17 p < .001, R2 = 0.110). In the final model, only acceptance of loss, grief and jealousy were significant and positive predictors of social well-being.

In terms of psychological well-being, the first model proved to be statistically significant (F (2, 532) = 9.56, p < .001, R2 = 0.035), with age groups and gender explaining 3.5% of the variance of psychological well-being. In Block 2, the introduction of the variables related to capacity to love significantly increased the explained variance in 16.0% (F (6, 526) = 17.41, p < .001). The model with the eight independent variables was statistically significantand explained a total variance of 19.5% (F (8, 526) = 15.89 p < .001, R2 = 0.195). In this last step, it was found that acceptance of loss, grief and jealousy proved to be a significant and positive predictor.

Discussion

Being a current area of investigation, the main objective of this study was to understand the individual capacity to love and explore which dimensions of the capacity to love best predict well-being in two distinct age groups: emerging adults and middle-aged adults.

Regarding the results obtained and in response to the first research objective, “To analyze whether there are differences in the capacity to love among different age groups, specifically between Emerging Adults and Middle-Aged Adults”, it was found that emerging adults demonstrate a higher capacity to love in all dimensions, except for the dimension of acceptance of loss, grief, and jealousy. These results appear to be consistent with the literature, as individuals between the ages of 18 and 25, marked by identity exploration and role experimentation, develop the ability to share interests and life goals with another person in romantic relationships characterized by intensity, sexual passion, and emotional and physical intimacy (Arnett, 2000).

However, due to the transformative and uncertain nature of this period, along with greater sexual freedom and the absence of typical adult commitments (e.g., marriage and parenthood), these relationships manifest as emotionally volatile interactions, oscillating between committed relationships and casual romantic encounters (Arnett, 2004; Cohen et al., 2003). Thus, despite young adults reporting a higher propensity for sexual passion compared to middle-aged adults, our study’s results align with the research conducted by Carter et al. (2018), as emerging adults face the experience of romantic rejection as a distressing event involving emotions such as sadness, jealousy, social withdrawal, loss of self-esteem, and grief.

On the other hand, research has shown that age seems to reflect maturity. Hence, the results of this study are consistent with the investigations by Lantagne and Furman (2017) and Zimmer-Gembeck and Ducat (2010), which emphasize that with age and long-term relationships, negative interactions such as control and jealousy diminish due to greater emotional maturity, wherein love and romantic partners are seen as sources of support and companionship.

In contrast to this study’s findings, scientific studies suggest that trust, as well as interest and romantic commitment, increase over the developmental cycle. Kernberg (2011) highlights in his study that, due to this maturation process that develops and intensifies with age, interest in the other person’s life project grows as there is a joint exploration of values. The greater this interest, the greater the gratitude, tolerance, and acceptance of boundaries. It is worth noting that some of the ambiguity present in the literature may be attributed to the scarcity of research focused on older age groups and the social representation of love and sexuality.

Regarding the second research objective, “To analyze whether there are gender differences (women and men) concerning the capacity to love”, it was observed that the gender differences were not statistically significant. However, women demonstrated a higher capacity to love in all dimensions except for accepting loss, grief, and jealousy. While the literature is not unanimous regarding gender differences, some research suggests that women experience a lack of positive affect during romantic loss or conflict, leading to a higher likelihood of developing depressive symptoms, guilt, distress, and daily grief compared to men (Verhallen et al., 2019; Stoessel et al., 2011). The literature has related these characteristics to evolutionary factors and physiological mechanisms that indicate a greater propensity for women to seek behaviors of care and security (Hendrick & Hendrick, 1986). However, these notions are evolving as the subjective experience of love and human relationships undergo significant transformations in terms of social roles.

Concerning the third research objective, “To analyze which dimensions of the capacity to love predict well-being”, considering the reference values for the Portuguese population from Fonte et al. (2020), it was found that, for the overall sample, well-being levels were below the reference values. However, middle-aged adults exhibited higher levels of well-being across the three subdimensions of the scale compared to emerging adults, which may be related to research by Carstensen et al. (2011), where age seems to be a factor contributing to life satisfaction, increasing over the developmental course of individuals.

In this perspective, it was observed that, after controlling for the effects of age and gender, there is a significant association between the dimensions of the capacity to love and the subdimensions of well-being. For the emotional well-being, the dimensions of basic trust and acceptance of loss, grief, and jealousy were significant positive predictors. These results align with previous studies, suggesting that higher levels of basic trust are associated with greater love satisfaction and, consequently, greater perceived satisfaction and positive experiences related to love (Kapusta et al., 2018). According to Kernberg (2011), relational trust allows for constructive conflict resolution and, therefore, higher emotional satisfaction. In terms of the capacity to tolerate loss and grief, the acceptance and understanding of forgiveness significantly impacted individuals’ emotional well-being, possibly moderating their dynamics within a relationship and subsequent individual satisfaction with the relationship.

Regarding social well-being, only the dimension of acceptance of loss, grief, and jealousy emerged as a significant positive predictor. Due to the limited empirical data in the area of social well-being, the association between this dimension of the ICA-I and social well-being allows us to consider that individuals with a greater capacity to accept loss, grief, and jealousy may possess higher levels of positive functioning and interpersonal adjustment in the social and interpersonal dimension.

As for psychological well-being, the study’s results showed a significantly positive association between the dimension of acceptance of loss, grief, and jealousy and this subdimension of well-being. These findings seem consistent with the research by Cheng and Ying (2008), which indicates a close relationship between this psychological dimension of well-being and the capacity to forgive, contributing directly to psychological well-being and life satisfaction. Although there are limitations in understanding the relationship between this well-being and the construct of love, the link between the dimensions of the ICA-I and the subdimension of psychological well-being suggests that individuals with a higher capacity to accept loss, grief, and jealousy presumably have a more adaptive adjustment in terms of psychological well-being. Consequently, due to the positive affectivity and emotional regulation in these individuals, they may experience improved relationship development and quality, greater personal growth, and life satisfaction (Dumitrache et al., 2018).

Overall, from a global perspective, this study’s results highlight that the dimension of acceptance of loss, grief, and jealousy was the only dimension of the capacity to love that significantly predicted all three subdimensions of well-being. Additionally, the age group emerged as a significant predictor of well-being. Furthermore, this dimension was the only one where middle-aged adults reported higher capacity than emerging adults. At the same time, regarding gender, it was the dimension in which men demonstrated greater capacity than women. Therefore, the capacity to accept the individuality of one’s partner and their respective differences in processes of mourning/loss of a loved one or crisis contexts within a relationship appears to be a substantial factor not only in romantic relationships but also in individual well-being.

However, the study does have some limitations, particularly regarding the lack of heterogeneity in the sample. Out of the 535 participants in the overall sample, 81.5% were women, showing a significant discrepancy concerning gender. Additionally, as data collection was conducted through an online platform, the factor of fatigue might have interfered with some of the participants’ responses. Another possible limitation arises from whether participants answered the ICA (Individual Capacity to Love Inventory) based on their overall love experience and capacity to love, specifically concerning their current romantic relationship. Another limitation concerns the relational status of the participants. They were asked about their marital status, but among the single respondents, there was no differentiation between those engaged in a romantic relationship and those not. Previous studies have indicated that unmarried individuals without romantic partners tend to experience lower levels of emotional well-being than those with partners (Adamczyk & Segrin, 2015). Moreover, it would be beneficial to explore participants’ satisfaction with their relational status in future studies. Research has shown that satisfaction with relationship status emerges as a more pivotal factor in predicting life satisfaction and psychological distress than solely considering marital status or life satisfaction (Adamczyk, 2017).

To achieve a more profound comprehension of how the capacity to love evolves over life span, forthcoming studies should contemplate utilizing longitudinal and/or sequential research designs. Additionally, it would be beneficial to assess the quality of romantic relationships or marital satisfaction, as this could shed light on their potential influence on the association between the capacity to love and overall well-being. Additionally, due to the theme’s association with attachment patterns and personality traits, it would be beneficial in future research to include measures of personality assessment and attachment patterns with the romantic partner.

Conclusion

Based on the study’s results, it can be concluded that the capacity to love is a crucial construct for human well-being. The study found a significant positive association between the capacity to love and emotional, psychological, and social well-being, with basic trust and acceptance of loss and grief being significant predictors of well-being. Age group also emerged as a significant predictor of well-being, with middle-aged adults showing a higher capacity than emerging adults to accept loss and grief. Moreover, in terms of gender differences, men demonstrated greater capacity than women in the same dimension. These results suggest that the ability to accept a partner’s individuality and cope with loss and crisis in relationships plays a crucial role in both romantic relationships and individual well-being.

These findings have important implications for interventions promoting well-being by enhancing the capacity to love.

As for clinical implications, the study has provided insights into long-term issues related to the health and well-being of individuals. Understanding the normative root and developmental sequence of romantic relationships throughout individuals’ life cycles can contribute to interventions to minimize romantic instability and enhance successful transitions between developmental stages. Interventions, particularly in terms of positive strategies and skills in healthy romantic relationships, have the potential to significantly improve the individual’s subjective experience of love and well-being (Hielscher et al., 2021). Also, it promotes an individual’s greater capacity to accept loss and grief in a marital crisis or dissolution of a romantic relationship, providing a more efficient way of dealing with conflict or potentially stressful situations.

Although relationships are strongly correlated with well-being and psychological health, the inability to maintain intimate relationships and relational instability have been associated with inhibiting personality functioning and subsequent emotional suffering. Thus, a deeper understanding of the components of love (subdimensions of the ICA-I) and their operationalization can serve as a tool to assist healthcare professionals, especially clinicians, in intervening with clients regarding psychological manifestations or love-related issues that may be impacting them on an individual level or in the context of their romantic dynamics.