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Review Article on Molecular Mechanism of Regulation of Hypertension by Macro-elements (Na, K, Ca and Mg), Micro-elements/Trace Metals (Zn and Cu) and Toxic Elements (Pb and As)

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Abstract

Hypertension (HT) is a medical condition arising due to increase in blood pressure (BP) prevalent worldwide. The balanced dietary intakes of macro-elements and micro-elements including Na, K, Ca, Mg, Zn, and Cu have been described to maintain BP in humans by regulating the osmolarity of blood, cells/tissues, prevention of generation of oxidative and nitrosative stress (OANS), and endothelial damage through their functioning as important components of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), antioxidant enzyme defense system, and maintenance of blood vascular-endothelial and vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) functions. However, inadequate/excess dietary intakes of Na/K, Ca/Mg, and Zn/Cu along with higher Pb and As exposures recognized to induce HT through common mechanisms including the followings: endothelial dysfunctions due to impairment of vasodilatation, increased vasoconstriction and arterial stiffness, blood clotting, inflammation, modification of sympathetic activity and higher catecholamine release, increased peripheral vascular resistance, and cardiac output; increased OANS due to reduced and elevated activities of extracellular superoxide dismutase and NAD(P)H oxidase, less nitric oxide bioavailability, decrease in cGMP and guanylate cyclase activity, increase in intracellular Ca2+ ions in VSMCs, and higher pro-inflammatory cytokines; higher parathyroid and calcitriol hormones; activation/suppression of RAAS resulting imbalance in blood Na+, K+, and water regulated by renin, angiotensin II, and aldosterone through affecting natriuresis/kaliuresis/diuresis; elevation in serum cholesterol and LDL cholesterol, decrease in HDL cholesterol due to defect in lipoprotein metabolism. The present study recommends the need to review simple dietary mineral intervention studies/supplementation trials before keeping their individual dietary excess intakes/exposures in consideration because their interactions lead to elevation and fall of their concentrations in body affecting onset of HT.

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Acknowledgements

Thanks to all the authors of this article for reviewing it critically for intellectual content, critical statements and descriptions, and dietary elemental interventions for inducing or improving blood pressure in hypertensive patients worldwide.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. PG Department of Biotechnology and Microbial Biotechnology, Sri Guru Gobind Singh College, Sector-26, Chandigarh, UT, India

    Amit Joshi

  2. Department of Zoology, Panjab University, Sector-14, Chandigarh, UT, India

    Sukhbir Kaur & Satish Kumar Taneja

  3. PG Department of Zoology, Sri Guru Gobind Singh College, Sector-26, Chandigarh, UT, India

    Reshu Mandal

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All authors including Dr. Reshu Mandal, Dr. Amit Joshi, Dr. Satish Kumar Taneja, and Dr. Sukhbir Kaur have contributed to the study concept, design, and preparation of this present review article. This review article has been written by Dr. Reshu Mandal and Dr. Amit Joshi. All authors are responsible for the correctness of the statements provided in this review article and have read and approved the final version for its submission to the journal for publication.

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Joshi, A., Kaur, S., Taneja, S.K. et al. Review Article on Molecular Mechanism of Regulation of Hypertension by Macro-elements (Na, K, Ca and Mg), Micro-elements/Trace Metals (Zn and Cu) and Toxic Elements (Pb and As). Biol Trace Elem Res 202, 1477–1502 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-023-03784-z

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