Abstract
Preparation of porous starch (PS) from corn starch (NS) using enzymes amylase (AM) and amyloglucosidase (AMG) was standardized using two factorial experimental design in terms of surface area and pore size distribution. SEM micrographs confirmed the formation of porous structures in the granules. Based on surface area, pore size and statistical analysis 300 U AM and 250 U AMG for 6 h incubation were suggested for porous starch preparation. Physicochemical characteristics of NS and PS were compared using zeta potential, contact angle, rheology, FTIR, XRD, and DSC which suggested the potential of PS as a stabilizer for O/W emulsions. Further studies confirmed emulsion stabilizing efficacy of PS with creaming index of 5.0% against 16.6% for NS. The fluorescence microscopy images of the emulsion after staining with specific dyes revealed that PS acts as a Pickering particle. Furthermore, studies using curcumin as model system indicated that PS acts as better bioactive carrier as compared to NS. The curcumin holding capacities of PS and NS were 82.24 ± 1.07 and 61.03 ± 1.43%, respectively. The study suggested that PS can be effectively used as Pickering particle and bioactive carrier in various food, nutraceutical, and pharmaceutical applications.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
Data may be made available on request.
Change history
09 July 2022
A Correction to this paper has been published: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-022-02875-4
References
Aggarwal, P., & Dollimore, D. (2000). Degradation of starchy food material by thermal analysis. Thermochimica Acta, 358(June 1999), 57–63
Ahmad, M., Gani, A., Masoodi, F. A., & Rizvi, S. H. (2020). Influence of ball milling on the production of starch nanoparticles and its effect on structural, thermal and functional properties. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 151, 85–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.02.139
Aveyard, R., Binks, B. P., & Clint, J. H. (2003). Emulsions stabilised solely by colloidal particles. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 102, 503–546.
Azfaralariff, A., Faiqah, F., Sisika, R., Faizan, M., & Mat, A. (2020). Food-grade particle stabilized pickering emulsion using modified sago ( Metroxylon sagu ) starch nanocrystal. Journal of Food Engineering, 280(October 2019), 109974. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2020.109974
Belingheri, C., Ferrillo, A., & Vittadini, E. (2015a). Porous starch for fl avor delivery in a tomato-based food application. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 60(1), 593–597. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2014.09.047
Belingheri, C., Giussani, B., Rodriguez-estrada, M. T., Ferrillo, A., & Vittadini, E. (2015b). Oxidative stability of high-oleic sunflower oil in a porous starch carrier. FOOD CHEMISTRY, 166, 346–351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.06.029
Benavent-gil, Y., & Rosell, C. M. (2016). Comparison of porous starches obtained from different enzyme types and levels. Carbohydrate Polymers. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2016.10.047
Cakmak, T., Angun, P., Demiray, Y. E., & Ozkan, A. D. (2012). Differential effects of nitrogen and sulfur deprivation on growth and biodiesel feedstock production of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Biotechnology and Bioengineering, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1002/bit.24474
Chassaing, B., Koren, O., Goodrich, J. K., Poole, A. C., Srinivasan, S., Ley, R. E., & Gewirtz, A. T. (2015). Dietary emulsifiers impact the mouse gut microbiota promoting colitis and metabolic syndrome. Nature, 519(7541), 92–96. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14232
Chen, J., Wang, Y., Liu, J., & Xu, X. (2020). Preparation, characterization, physicochemical property and potential application of porous starch : A review. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 148, 1169–1181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.02.055
Chen, L., Tian, Y., Bai, Y., Wang, J., Jiao, A., & Jin, Z. (2017). Effect of frying on the pasting and rheological properties of normal maize starch. Food Hydrocolloids. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2017.09.024
Chen, Y., Song, H., Huang, K., & Guan, X. (2021). Novel porous starch/alginate hydrogel for controlled insulin release with dual response of pH and amylase. Food & Function, 0–27. https://doi.org/10.1039/D1FO01411K.Food
Choy, S. Y., Prasad, K. N., Wu, T. Y., Raghunandan, M. E., & Ramanan, R. N. (2016). Performance of conventional starches as natural coagulants for turbidity removal. Ecological Engineering, 94, 352–364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2016.05.082
Comunian, T. A., da Silva Anthero, A. G., Bezerra, E. O., Moraes, I. C. F., & Hubinger, M. D. (2020). Encapsulation of pomegranate seed oil by emulsification followed by spray drying: Evaluation of different biopolymers and their effect on particle properties. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 13(1), 53–66.
Da Silva Soares, B., De Carvalho, C. W. P., & Garcia-Rojas, E. E. (2021). Microencapsulation of Sacha Inchi oil by complex coacervates using ovalbumin-tannic acid and pectin as wall materials. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 14(5), 817–830
Dai, L., Li, C., Zhang, J., & Cheng, F. (2018). Preparation and characterization of starch nanocrystals combining ball milling with acid hydrolysis. Carbohydrate Polymers, 180(September 2017), 122–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.10.015
Dallarmellina, A., Letan, M., Duval, C., & Contino-Pépin. (2021). One-pot solvent-free extraction and formulation of lipophilic natural products: From curcuma to dried formulations of curcumin. Green Chemistry. https://doi.org/10.1039/d1gc00587a
Daniel, J. F., & Ana, A. M. (2020). Rice in vitro digestion : Application of INFOGEST harmonized protocol for glycemic index determination and starch morphological study. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 57(April), 1393–1404. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-019-04174-x
Dean, A. P., Sigee, D. C., Estrada, B., & Pittman, J. K. (2010). Using FTIR spectroscopy for rapid determination of lipid accumulation in response to nitrogen limitation in freshwater microalgae. Bioresource Technology, 101(12), 4499–4507. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2010.01.065
Din, Z.-, Xiong, H., & Fei, P. (2015). Physical and chemical modification of starches - A review. 8398(November). https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2015.1087379
Du, S., Wang, L., Fu, X., Chen, M., & Wang, C. (2013). Bioresource technology hierarchical porous carbon microspheres derived from porous starch for use in high-rate electrochemical double-layer capacitors. Bioresource Technology, 139, 406–409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2013.04.085
Dura, A., Błaszczak, W., & Rosell, C. M. (2014). Functionality of porous starch obtained by amylase or amyloglucosidase treatments. Carbohydrate Polymers, 101, 837–845. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.10.013
Espinosa-Solís, V., García-Tejeda, Y. V., Portilla-Rivera, O. M., & Barrera-Figueroa, V. (2021). Tailoring olive oil microcapsules via microfluidization of Pickering o/w emulsions. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 14(10), 1835–1843.
Frelichowska, J., Bolzinger, M., & Chevalier, Y. (2009). Colloids and Surfaces A : Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects Pickering Emulsions with Bare Silica., 343, 70–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2009.01.031
Gomez-Mascaraque, L. G., Sipoli, C. C., Gaziola, L., & de La Torre, A.L.-R. (2017). Microencapsulation structures based on protein-coated liposomes obtained through electrospraying for the stabilization and improved bioaccessibility of curcumin. Food Chemistry. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.04.133
Guida, C., Aguiar, A. C., & Cunha, R. L. (2021). Green techniques for starch modification to stabilize Pickering emulsions: A current review and future perspectives. Current Opinion in Food Science, 38, 52–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cofs.2020.10.017
Guo, L., Li, J., Li, H., Zhu, Y., & Cui, B. (2020). The structure property and adsorption capacity of new enzyme-treated potato and sweet potato starches. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 144, 863–873. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.09.164
Guo, L., Yuan, Y., Li, J., Tan, C., Janaswamy, S., Lu, L., Fang, Y., & Cui, B. (2021). Comparison of functional properties of porous starches produced with different enzyme combinations. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 174(31771933), 110–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.01.165
He, G. J., Liu, Q., & Thompson, M. R. (2013). Characterization of structure and properties of thermoplastic potato starch film surface cross-linked by UV irradiation. 304–311. https://doi.org/10.1002/star.201200097
Hong, I. K., Kim, S. I., & Lee, S. B. (2018). Effects of HLB value on oil-in-water emulsions: Droplet size, rheological behavior, zeta-potential, and creaming index. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 67, 123–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2018.06.022
Hoon, S., Yerim, P., Jungwoo, N., Shin, K., & Kang, D. (2018). Properties and applications of starch modifying enzymes for use in the baking industry. Food Science and Biotechnology, 27(2), 299–312. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10068-017-0261-5
Ichihara, T., Fukuda, J., Takaha, T., Yuguchi, Y., & Kitamura, S. (2013). Limited hydrolysis of insoluble cassava starch granules results in enhanced gelling properties. Journal of Applied Glycoscience, 61(1), 15–20., 20, 15–20. https://doi.org/10.5458/jag.jag.
Jadhav, N. V., & Vavia, P. R. (2017). Supercritical processed starch nanosponge as a carrier for enhancement of dissolution and pharmacological efficacy of fenofibrate. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.03.002
Ji, Y. (2021). Synthesis of porous starch microgels for the encapsulation, delivery and stabilization of anthocyanins. Journal of Food Engineering, 302, 110552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2021.110552
Jiang, S., Yu, Z., Hu, H., Lv, J., Wang, H., & Jiang, S. (2017). Adsorption of procyanidins onto chitosan-modified porous rice starch. LWT - Food Science and Technology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2017.05.047
Jiang, Y., Li, F., Li, D., Sun-Waterhouse, D., & Huang, Q. (2019). Zein/pectin nanoparticle-stabilized sesame oil Pickering emulsions: Sustainable bioactive carriers and healthy alternatives to sesame paste. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 12(12), 1982–1992.
Kierulf, A., Azizi, M., Eskandarloo, H., Whaley, J., Liu, W., Perez-herrera, M., You, Z., & Abbaspourrad, A. (2019). Food hydrocolloids starch-based Janus particles : Proof-of-concept heterogeneous design via a spin-coating spray approach. Food Hydrocolloids, 91(January), 301–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2019.01.037
Kierulf, A., Whaley, J., Liu, W., Enayati, M., & Tan, C. (2020). Protein content of amaranth and quinoa starch plays a key role in their ability as Pickering emulsi fi ers. Food Chemistry, 315(January), 126246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.126246
Konar, N., Ozarda, O., Senocak, S., Unluturk, N. N., & Oba, S. (2019). Effects of process conditions on citrus beverage emulsions’ creaming index: RSM approach. ETP International Journal of Food Engineering, 5, 22–27. https://doi.org/10.18178/ijfe.5.1.22-27
Korma, S. A., Niazi, S., Ammar, A., Zaaboul, F., & Zhang, T. (2016). Chemically modified starch and utilization in food stuffs. 5(4), 264–272. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijnfs.20160504.15
Lacerda, L. D., Leite, D. C., & Nádya, P. (2019). Relationships between enzymatic hydrolysis conditions and properties of rice porous starches. Journal of Cereal Science, 89(July), 102819. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcs.2019.102819
Lacerda, L. D., Leite, D. C., Soares, R. M. D., & Silveira, N. P. (2018). Effects of α -amylase, amyloglucosidase, and their mixture on hierarchical porosity of rice starch. Starch, 1800008, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1002/star.201800008
Lei, W.-C., & Zhao Jiu-Ran, L.W.-P. (2009). Crystalline structure and pasting properties of starch in eight cultivars of spring- and autumn-sown waxy corn. Acta Agronomica Sinica, 35(3), 499–505. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1875-2780(08)60070-X
Li, C., Li, Y., Sun, P., & Yang, C. (2013). Pickering emulsions stabilized by native starch granules. Colloids and Surfaces a: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 431, 142–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2013.04.025
Liu, J., Wang, X., Yong, H., Kan, J., & Jin, C. (2018). Recent advances in flavonoid-grafted polysaccharides: Synthesis, structural characterization, bioactivities and potential applications. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.05.149
Liu, Q., Bao, H., Xi, C., & Miao, H. (2014). Rheological characterization of tuna myofibrillar protein in linear and nonlinear viscoelastic regions. Journal of Food Engineering, 121(1), 58–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2013.08.016
Majzoobi, M., Hedayati, S., & Farahnaky, A. (2015). Functional properties of microporous wheat starch produced by α-amylase and sonication. Food Bioscience. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2015.05.001
Malucelli, L. C., Lacerda, L. G., da Carvalho Filho, M. A. S., Fernández, D. E. R., Demiate, I. M., Oliveira, C. S., & Schnitzler, E. (2015). Porous waxy maize starch. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 2015, 525–532. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-015-4483-6
Maphosa, Y., & Jideani, V. A. (2018). Factors affecting the stability of emulsions stabilised by biopolymers. Science and Technology behind Nanoemulsions. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.75308
Marefati, A., Wiege, B., Haase, N. U., Matos, M., & Rayner, M. (2017). Pickering emulsifiers based on hydrophobically modified small granular starches – Part I : Manufacturing and physico-chemical characterization. Carbohydrate Polymers. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.07.044
Marku, D., Wahlgren, M., Rayner, M., Sjöö, M., & Timgren, A. (2012). Characterization of starch Pickering emulsions for potential applications in topical formulations. International Journal of Pharmaceutics, 428(1–2), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpharm.2012.01.031
Mohammed, A. N., Ishwarya, S. P., & Nisha, P. (2021). Nanoemulsion versus microemulsion systems for the encapsulation of beetroot extract: Comparison of physicochemical characteristics and betalain stability. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 14(1), 133–150.
Nawaz, H., Waheed, R., Nawaz, M., & Shahwar, D. (2020). Physical and chemical modifications in starch structure and reactivity. Chemical Properties of Starch, 9, 13–35. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88870
Okonkwo, V. C., Mba, O. I., Kwofie, E. M., & Ngadi, M. O. (2021). Rheological properties of meat sauces as influenced by temperature. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 14(11), 2146–2160.
Oliyaei, N., Moosavi-nasab, M., & Mohammad, A. (2020). Encapsulation of fucoxanthin in binary matrices of porous starch and halloysite. Food Hydrocolloids, 100(May 2019), 105458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2019.105458
Patil, V. S., Gutierrez, A. M., Sunkara, M., Morris, A. J., Hilt, J. Z., Kalika, D. S., & Dziubla, T. D. (2017). Curcumin acrylation for biological and environmental applications. Journal of Natural Products, 80(2017), 1964–1971. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jnatprod.6b00951
Perez, S., Baldwin, P. M., & Gallant, D. J. (2009). Structural features of starch granules I. Elsevier Inc. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-746275-2.00005-7
Pickering, S. U. (1907). CXCVI.—Emulsions. Journal of the Chemical Society, Transactions, 91(0), 2001–2021. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119220510.ch15
Punia, S. (2019). Barley starch modifications: Physical, chemical and enzymatic - A review. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.12.088
Qi, F., Wu, J., Sun, G., Nan, F., Ngai, T., & Ma, G. (2014). Systematic studies of Pickering emulsions stabilized by uniform-sized PLGA particles : Preparation and stabilization mechanism †. Journal of Materials Chemistry b: Materials for Biology and Medicine, 2, 7605–7611. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4TB01165A
Ramsden, W. (1903). Separation of solids in the surface-layers of solutions and‘suspensions’(observations on surface-membranes, bubbles, emulsions, and mechanical coagulation).–preliminary account. Proceeding of the Royal Society London, 72, 156–164.
Rayner, M., Sjoo, M., Timgren, A., & Dejmek, P. (2012). Quinoa starch granules as stabilizing particles for production of Pickering emulsions. Faraday Discussions, 158(2012), 139–155. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2fd20038d
Saari, H., & Marilyn Rayner, M. W. (2019). Effects of starch granules differing in size and morphology from different botanical sources and their mixtures on the characteristics of Pickering emulsions. Food Hydrocolloids. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2018.11.063
Saffarionpour, S. (2020). Nanocellulose for stabilization of Pickering emulsions and delivery of nutraceuticals and its interfacial adsorption mechanism. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 13(8), 1292–1328.
Schafer, B., Hecht, M., Harting, J., & Nirschl, H. (2010). Agglomeration and filtration of colloidal suspensions with DVLO interactions in simulation and experiment. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 349(1), 186–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2010.05.025
Steffe, J. F. (1996). Rheological methods in food process engineering. In East Lansing,MI 48823 USA:Freeman Press (Second edi). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-1-4832-3245-4.50016-9
Su, J., Huang, Z., Yuan, X., Wang, X., & Li, M. (2010). Structure and properties of carboxymethyl cellulose / soy protein isolate blend edible films crosslinked by Maillard reactions. Carbohydrate Polymers, 79(1), 145–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2009.07.035
Sun, H., Zhao, P., & Ge, X. (2010). Recent advances in microbial raw starch degrading enzymes. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology, 988–1003. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12010-009-8579-y
Tao, H., Wang, P., Wu, F., Jin, Z., & Xu, X. (2016). Particle size distribution of wheat starch granules in relation to baking properties of frozen dough. Carbohydrate Polymers, 137, 147–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2015.10.063
Wang, H., Lv, J., Jiang, S., Niu, B., Pang, M., & Jiang, S. (2016a). Preparation and characterization of porous corn starch and its adsorption toward grape seed proanthocyanidins. Starch/starke, 68, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1002/star.201600009
Wang, A. J., Paterson, T., Owen, R., Sherborne, C., Dugan, J., Li, J. M., et al. (2016b). Photocurable high internal phase emulsions (HIPEs) containing hydroxyapatite for additive manufacture of tissue engineering scafolds with multi-scale porosity. Materials Science & Engineering, c: Materials for Biological Applications, 67, 51–58.
Wei, B., Hu, X., Li, H., Wu, C., Xu, X., Jin, Z., & Tian, Y. (2014). Effect of pHs on dispersity of maize starch nanocrystals in aqueous medium. Food Hydrocolloids, 36, 369–373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2013.08.015
Wu, J., & Ma, G. (2016). Recent studies of Pickering emulsions : Particles make the difference. Small, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.201600877
Wu, W., Jiao, A., Xu, E., Chen, Y., & Jin, Z. (2020). Effects of extrusion technology combined with enzymatic hydrolysis on the structural and physicochemical properties of porous corn starch. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 13(3), 442–451.
Wu, X., Li, X., Yang, L., Yuan, L., Xu, Z., Xu, J., & Li, D. (2021). Stability enhanced Pickering emulsions based on gelatin and dialdehyde starch nanoparticles as simple strategy for structuring liquid oils. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 1–11
Xu, E., Wu, Z., Long, J., Wang, F., Pan, X., Xu, X., ... & Jiao, A. (2015). Effect of thermostable α-amylase addition on the physicochemical properties, free/bound phenolics and antioxidant capacities of extruded hulled and whole rice. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 8(9), 1958–1973
Yu, L., Zhao, A., Yang, M., Wang, C., Wang, M., & Bai, X. (2018). Effects of the combination of freeze-thawing and enzymatic hydrolysis on the microstructure and physicochemical properties of porous corn starch. Food Hydrocolloids. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2018.04.041
Zhang, B., Cui, D., Liu, M., Gong, H., Huang, Y., & Han, F. (2012). Corn porous starch: Preparation, characterization and adsorption property. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 50(1), 250–256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2011.11.002
Zhang, C., Lim, S., & Chung, H. (2019). Physical modi fi cation of potato starch using mild heating and freezing with minor addition of gums. Food Hydrocolloids, 94(February), 294–303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2019.03.027
Zhou, X., Chang, Q., Li, J., Jiang, L., Xing, Y., & Jin, Z. (2021). Preparation of V-type porous starch by amylase hydrolysis of V-type granular starch in aqueous ethanol solution. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 183, 890–897. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.05.006
Zhu, J., Zhong, L., Chen, W., Song, Y., & Qian, Z. (2018). Preparation and characterization of pectin/chitosan beads containing porous starch embedded with doxorubicin hydrochloride: A novel and simple colon targeted drug delivery system. Food Hydrocolloids. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2018.04.042
Zhu, F. (2019). Starch based Pickering emulsions: Fabrication, properties, and applications. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 85(November 2018), 129–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2019.01.012
Zieba, T., Szumny, A., & Kapelko, M. (2011). Properties of retrograded and acetylated starch preparations: Part 1. Structure, susceptibility to amylase, and pasting characteristics. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 44(5), 1314–1320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2010.12.018
Acknowledgements
Sannya Sathyan is grateful to the University Grants Commission (UGC, India) for Fellowship and CSIR for the facilities.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Sathyan, S., Nisha, P. Optimization and Characterization of Porous Starch from Corn Starch and Application Studies in Emulsion Stabilization. Food Bioprocess Technol 15, 2084–2099 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-022-02843-y
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-022-02843-y