Abstract
This study aims at providing knowledge on the ability of food oil-in-water emulsions at sustaining extremely high temperature such that they can be used for sterilized food. Emulsions were prepared using biopolymer chitosan as Pickering emulsifier and ultrasonication for size reduction of oil droplets. Zeta potential, physical stability, and particle size distribution of emulsions were measured. The prepared emulsions were subjected to heat treatment at 121 °C using an aluminum cell-oil bath arrangement for varying time periods (30 and 60 min) in sealed polymeric pouches. After heat treatment, emulsions were stored for 2 weeks under accelerated storage condition of 37 °C and their physical stability, degradation of β-carotene, and loss of pigmentation as changes in L*, a*, and b* were analyzed to establish the stability of emulsions post-thermal stress. It was observed that the encapsulation matrix composed of self-aggregated chitosan could withstand heat processing treatment up to 1 h at 121 °C. The percent retention of β-carotene varied from 82 to 45% depending on the length of exposure at 121 °C and perceptible change in color as ΔE greater than 2 was recoded for 30 min and 60 min treatments. During subsequent storage at 37 °C, the measured content of β-carotene and color parameters remained mostly constant. These emulsions could be incorporated into sterilized food which have a long shelf life thereby extending the availability of encapsulated bioactive during storage after thermal processing.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability Statement
The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
References
Alishahi, A., & Aïder, M. (2012). Applications of chitosan in the seafood industry and aquaculture: A review. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 5(3), 817–830. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-011-0664-x
Asfour, M. H., Elmotasem, H., Mostafa, D. M., & Salama, A. A. A. (2017). Chitosan based Pickering emulsion as a promising approach for topical application of rutin in a solubilized form intended for wound healing: In vitro and in vivo study. International Journal of Pharmaceutics, 534(1), 325–338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpharm.2017.10.044
Dhawan, S., Sablani, S. S., Tang, J., Barbosa-Cànovas, G. V., Ullman, J. L., & Bhunia, K. (2014). Silicon migration from high-barrier coated multilayer polymeric films to selected food simulants after microwave processing treatments. Packaging Technology and Science, 27(8), 625–638. https://doi.org/10.1002/pts.2055
Donhowe, E. G., & Kong, F. (2014). Beta-carotene: Digestion, microencapsulation, and in vitro bioavailability. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 7(2), 338–354. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-013-1244-z
Gasa-Falcon, A., Acevedo-Fani, A., Oms-Oliu, G., Odriozola-Serrano, I., & Martín-Belloso, O. (2020). Development, physical stability and bioaccessibility of β-carotene-enriched tertiary emulsions. Journal of Functional Foods, 64, 103615. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2019.103615
Guo, Q., Bayram, I., Shu, X., Su, J., Liao, W., Wang, Y., & Gao, Y. (2022). Improvement of stability and bioaccessibility of β-carotene by curcumin in pea protein isolate-based complexes-stabilized emulsions: Effect of protein complexation by pectin and small molecular surfactants. Food Chemistry, 367, 130726. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.130726
Ho, K. W., Ooi, C. W., Mwangi, W. W., Leong, W. F., Tey, B. T., & Chan, E. -S. (2016). Comparison of self-aggregated chitosan particles prepared with and without ultrasonication pretreatment as Pickering emulsifier. Food Hydrocolloids, 52, 827–837. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2015.08.019
Jing, C., Qun, X., & Rohrer, J. (2012). HPLC separation of all-trans-β-carotene and its iodine-induced isomers using a C30 column. Thermo Scientifics.
Li, W., Nian, Y., Huang, Y., Zeng, X., Chen, Q., & Hu, B. (2019). High loading contents, distribution and stability of β-carotene encapsulated in high internal phase emulsions. Food Hydrocolloids, 96, 300–309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2019.05.038
McClements, D. J., Weiss, J., Kinchla, A. J., Nolden, A. A., & Grossmann, L. (2021). Methods for testing the quality attributes of plant-based foods: Meat- and processed-meat analogs. Foods, 10(2), 260. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10020260
Meroni, E., & Raikos, V. (2018). Physicochemical stability, antioxidant properties and bioaccessibility of β-carotene in orange oil-in-water beverage emulsions: Influence of carrier oil types. Food & Function, 9(1), 320–330. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7FO01170A
Mohammed, M. A., Syeda, J. T. M., Wasan, K. M., & Wasan, E. K. (2017). An overview of chitosan nanoparticles and its application in non-parenteral drug delivery. Pharmaceutics, 9(4), 53. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics9040053
Mordi, R. C. (1993). Mechanism of beta-carotene degradation. Biochemical Journal, 292(Pt 1), 310–312.
Mordi, R. C., Ademosun, O. T., Ajanaku, C. O., Olanrewaju, I. O., & Walton, J. C. (2020). Free radical mediated oxidative degradation of carotenes and xanthophylls. Molecules, 25(5), 1038. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25051038
Mwangi, W. W., Ho, K. -W., Tey, B. -T., & Chan, E. -S. (2016). Effects of environmental factors on the physical stability of pickering-emulsions stabilized by chitosan particles. Food Hydrocolloids, 60, 543–550. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2016.04.023
Nooshkam, M., & Varidi, M. (2021). Physicochemical stability and gastrointestinal fate of β-carotene-loaded oil-in-water emulsions stabilized by whey protein isolate-low acyl gellan gum conjugates. Food Chemistry, 347, 129079. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.129079
Ozturk, B., Argin, S., Ozilgen, M., & McClements, D. J. (2014). Formation and stabilization of nanoemulsion-based vitamin E delivery systems using natural surfactants: Quillaja saponin and lecithin. Journal of Food Engineering, 142, 57–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2014.06.015
Perrechil, F. A., Maximo, G. J., & Cunha, R. L. (2020). Microbeads of sodium caseinate and κ-carrageenan as a β-carotene carrier in aqueous systems. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 13(4), 661–669.
Rodriguez, E. B., & Rodriguez-Amaya, D. B. (2007). Formation of apocarotenals and epoxycarotenoids from β-carotene by chemical reactions and by autoxidation in model systems and processed foods. Food Chemistry, 101(2), 563–572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2006.02.015
Sharkawy, A., Barreiro, M. F., & Rodrigues, A. E. (2020). Chitosan-based Pickering emulsions and their applications: A review. Carbohydrate Polymers, 250, 116885. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.116885
Sonar, C. R. (2020). In-package thermal pasteurization: Evaluating performance of flexible packaging and oxygen sensitivity of food components [Ph.D., Washington State University]. https://www.proquest.com/docview/2453791501/abstract/2A482880801E4E0DPQ/1. 8 Nov 2021
Sonar, C. R., Paccola, C. S., Al-Ghamdi, S., Rasco, B., Tang, J., & Sablani, S. S. (2019). Stability of color, β-carotene, and ascorbic acid in thermally pasteurized carrot puree to the storage temperature and gas barrier properties of selected packaging films. Journal of Food Process Engineering, 42(4), e13074. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpe.13074
Su, J., Guo, Q., Chen, Y., Dong, W., Mao, L., Gao, Y., & Yuan, F. (2020). Characterization and formation mechanism of lutein pickering emulsion gels stabilized by β-lactoglobulin-gum arabic composite colloidal nanoparticles. Food Hydrocolloids, 98, 105276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2019.105276
Sun, J., Liu, T., Mu, Y., Jing, H., Obadi, M., & Xu, B. (2021). Enhancing the stabilization of β-carotene emulsion using ovalbumin-dextran conjugates as emulsifier. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2021.126806
Sweedman, M. C., Hasjim, J., Schäfer, C., & Gilbert, R. G. (2014). Structures of octenylsuccinylated starches: Effects on emulsions containing β-carotene. Carbohydrate Polymers, 112, 85–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.05.067
Tan, H., Han, L., & Yang, C. (2021). Effect of oil type and β-carotene incorporation on the properties of gelatin nanoparticle-stabilized pickering emulsions. LWT, 141, 110903. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2021.110903
Wang, X., Nian, Y., Zhang, Z., Chen, Q., Zeng, X., & Hu, B. (2019). High internal phase emulsions stabilized with amyloid fibrils and their polysaccharide complexes for encapsulation and protection of β-carotene. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces, 183, 110459. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2019.110459
Wei, Y., Tong, Z., Dai, L., Wang, D., Lv, P., Liu, J., Mao, L., Yuan, F., & Gao, Y. (2020). Influence of interfacial compositions on the microstructure, physiochemical stability, lipid digestion and β-carotene bioaccessibility of Pickering emulsions. Food Hydrocolloids, 104, 105738. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2020.105738
Wei, Y., Wang, C., Liu, X., Mackie, A., Zhang, M., Dai, L., Liu, J., Mao, L., Yuan, F., & Gao, Y. (2022). Co-encapsulation of curcumin and β-carotene in Pickering emulsions stabilized by complex nanoparticles: Effects of microfluidization and thermal treatment. Food Hydrocolloids, 122, 107064. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2021.107064
Wilson, A., Ekanem, E. E., Mattia, D., Edler, K. J., & Scott, J. L. (2021). Keratin–chitosan microcapsules via membrane emulsification and interfacial complexation. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 9(49), 16617–16626. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.1c05304
Wrolstad, R. E., & Smith, D. E. (2017). Color analysis. In S. S. Nielsen (Ed.), Food analysis (pp. 545–555). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-45776-5_31
Yi, J., Fan, Y., Yokoyama, W., Zhang, Y., & Zhao, L. (2016). Thermal degradation and isomerization of β-carotene in oil-in-water nanoemulsions supplemented with natural antioxidants. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 64(9), 1970–1976. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.5b05478
Zhou, X., Wang, H., Wang, C., Zhao, C., Peng, Q., Zhang, T., & Zhao, C. (2018). Stability and in vitro digestibility of beta-carotene in nanoemulsions fabricated with different carrier oils. Food Science & Nutrition, 6(8), 2537–2544. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.862
Acknowledgements
We thank technical assistance extended by Dr. Saleh Al-Ghamdi, Dr. Dan Mullendore and Dr. Ashutos Parhi. The authors are grateful to Dr. Hanu Pappu and Dr. Girish Ganjyal for equipment usage.
Funding
This project was funded by the United Stated Department of Agriculture: National Institute of Food and Agriculture grants #2016–67017-24597 and #2016–68003-24840.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Shyam S Sablani: conceptualization, methodology, supervision, writing—reviewing, funding acquisition, project administration. Sivapratha Sivabalan: conceptualization, methodology, visualization, investigation, data curation and analysis, writing—original draft preparation and editing.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Sivabalan, S., Sablani, S. Design of β-Carotene Encapsulated Emulsions for Thermal Processing and Storage. Food Bioprocess Technol 15, 338–351 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-021-02754-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-021-02754-4