Introduction

Transgender and non-binary (TNB) individuals encompass those whose gender identity differs from their gender assigned at birth [1]. Gender identity refers to an individual's deeply-felt internal experience of gender. It is how someone personally identifies their gender, which might be male, female, a blend of both, neither, or another gender entirely. Gender identity can correspond or differ from the gender assigned at birth (i.e., [2]). In contrast, sexual orientation refers to an individual's enduring pattern of romantic or sexual attraction to others (i.e., [3]). It is important to note that gender identity and sexual orientation are independent, even though related, dimensions and can be conceptualized along spectra. According to the William Institute, in the United States it is estimated that approximately 0.5% adults (about 1.3 million adults) identify as trans, with this figure likely to be higher when considering non-binary identities [4]. To date, global prevalence rates differ, reflecting cultural, social, and legal recognition of TNB individuals.

TNB individuals face unique challenges and needs in their sexual experiences. Sex tech holds significant potential to address these specific needs of TNB individuals. Sex technology (or, sex tech) encompasses a range of technologies designed to enhance, innovate, and mediate human sexual experiences. For example, a TNB individual might use a customized sex toy to alleviate dysphoria or engage with a dating app that respects their gender identity. Indeed, unlike cisgender populations whose gender identity matches the gender they were assigned at birth, TNB individuals often confront distinctive hurdles, such as body dysphoria and societal stigma, making their interaction with sex tech particularly relevant and necessary for fulfilling their specific needs.

Therefore, when discussing TNB sexuality, it is crucial to embrace a sex-positive perspective and prioritize the centrality of pleasure [5]. However, it is equally essential to underscore the pivotal role of centering TNB subjectivities within this discourse, acknowledging them as sexual subjects in their own sexual narratives rather than passive objects of analysis. By taking this approach, we acknowledge the multifaceted nature of TNB sexuality, moving beyond a narrow focus on identity or medicalization to explore the diverse ways in which TNB individuals engage with their bodies, desires, and expressions of intimacy. In doing so, we aim to shift the discourse towards a more inclusive and empowering understanding of TNB sexuality, one that celebrates autonomy, pleasure, and agency. The subject matter of the manuscript has not been thoroughly investigated by scholars, and to our knowledge there are no reviews of any kind in the scientific literature. Therefore, the present narrative review will explore the topic of sex tech in TNB sexuality. A narrative review is a type of review that provides a comprehensive and critical analysis of the literature on a specific topic without employing a systematic search strategy. It aims to summarize and interpret the existing body of research, offering insights and highlighting gaps or inconsistencies. Given the lens we decided to adopt, the paper will focus on TNB individuals as sexual subjects who engage with sex tech for their own pleasure.

However, it is important to acknowledge the socio-cultural context and the tendency to objectify and fetishize TNB sexuality [6]. This framework sheds light on the manner in which trans sexuality has often been perceived and portrayed, particularly within research and social representation. In light of this, a brief section will also be dedicated to how trans people are represented and researched in the sex tech world.

Methodology

A comprehensive search of two online databases, Google Scholar and PubMed, was conducted. The search terms used included "sex tech/technology and transgender," "sex tech/technology and nonbinary," transgender and nonbinary” were also combined with “pornography”; “sex toys”; “dating apps/websites”; “sex dolls/robots”; and “virtual reality sex”. Articles were included in the current narrative review if their focus was specific to TNB individuals or mentioned TNB individuals or bodies. All articles were published in peer-reviewed journals, excluding non-peer-reviewed sources. The synthesis of findings aimed to provide an overview of the existing literature and identify gaps. The overview of the articles included in our narrative review (N = 19) are summarized in Table 1. In our review of the literature, we identified a limited number of studies specifically focused on TNB populations within the context of sexual technology (N = 6). Our database search yielded only one study on the use of pornography content among TNB individuals and one study on sex toys. Notably, there were no studies dedicated exclusively to the use of sex dolls, sex robots, or virtual reality sex within the TNB population. Additionally, we found four studies that explored the use of dating apps by TNB individuals. To comprehensively discuss the various topics, we also sought articles that did not specifically target TNB populations but provided reflections adaptable to the TNB population and other useful information (N = 13). We consider studies to be adaptable if they address themes or issues in the realm of sex tech relevant to TNB individuals, even if the primary sample population is not TNB. These studies often include findings that can be reasonably extrapolated to the experiences of TNB individuals or provide insights into broader LGBTQ+ experiences, which might overlap with those of TNB individuals. Additionally, theoretical frameworks or conceptual discussions within these studies can be adapted to better understand TNB populations' engagement with sex tech. By including these adaptable studies, we aim to provide a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the current literature and its applicability to the TNB community.

Table 1 Overview of articles included in the review on TNB people. Articles focusing specifically on TNB population are marked with an asterisk (*)
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Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

To be eligible for inclusion in this narrative review, studies had to meet the following criteria: (1) they had to be original research articles published in peer review journals, (2) available in English, (3) focused on transgender and non-binary (TNB) individuals. We excluded books, theses, dissertations, articles not available in English, articles not focusing on TNB adults, and articles whose samples exclusively comprised individuals younger than 18 years old.

Given the paucity of studies that primarily focus on TNB engagement with sex tech, we decided to include studies not focused on TNB populations following the criteria mentioned earlier. This approach allowed us to broaden our scope and incorporate relevant insights and theoretical frameworks that can be applied to better understand TNB individuals' experiences with sex technology.

Results

In this section, we present the findings from our comprehensive review of the existing literature on transgender and non-binary (TNB) individuals and sex technology. Our research reveals a scarcity of studies in this area, highlighting the need for more focused investigations. The results are divided into two main categories: 1) the ways in which TNB individuals engage with various forms of sex technology, and 2) the representation and research of TNB bodies in the realm of sex tech.

Transgender and Non-binary Individuals’ Engagement with Sex Tech

TNB individuals’ engagement with sex tech remains a largely under-researched area, with existing literature offering only limited insights. The scarcity of focused studies highlights the lack of well-established theories to conceptualize the experiences and needs of TNB individuals in this evolving field. This paragraph explores how TNB individuals interact with various forms of sex technology. The discussion is divided into several key areas, each examining a different aspect of sex tech and its impact on the TNB community. The aim is to provide a comprehensive understanding of the benefits and challenges faced by TNB individuals in this evolving technological landscape. In order to present the progression of engagement with sex technologies, we have structured our findings into a conceptual overview chart (see Fig. 1). Figure 1 was developed based on a thorough review of the existing literature on sex technology. The figure aims to visually represent the progression of engagement with various sex technologies, providing a conceptual framework that underpins our narrative review. Starting with passive consumption through pornography, individuals engage in consuming sexually explicit material. VR pornography offers a more immersive experience than traditional pornography, enhancing the level of engagement. The progression continues with interactive stages involving dating apps, where individuals actively seek and interact with potential partners. Next, sex toys, which are physical devices used for enhancing sexual pleasure, involve direct interaction with the device. Finally, advanced interactions are represented by sex dolls and robots, which simulate human interaction and sexual experiences, providing the highest level of physical engagement.

Fig. 1
figure 1

This conceptual overview chart illustrates how each technology progresses from passive to increasingly active engagement in the realm of sex technologies

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This chart will guide the discussion on how TNB individuals engage with these technologies, highlighting varying levels of interaction and their implications. Each section will provide a definition of the sex technology described, a description of the literature studies included in the narrative review, and a brief critical discussion.

Pornography

The term “pornography” is complex and multifaceted, especially in the digital age [7]. According to a thematic analysis of prominent research on pornography, a useful definition encompasses three components: content, the producer's intention, and contextual judgment. New technologies have expanded opportunities for access and content, introduced interaction and immersion through virtual reality, contributed to the 'pornification' of culture, and posed challenges to consent with self-produced content. Thus, pornography can be defined as “material deemed sexual, given the context, that has the primary intention of sexually arousing the consumer and is produced and distributed with the consent of all persons involved” [7].

TNB individuals frequently appear as central figures in pornographic material. We identified one study that examined TNB individuals as thoughtful consumers of sexually explicit content [8]. The research involved 212 self-identified TNB participants, predominantly including trans men/transmasculine (47.2%), trans women/transfeminine (15.6%), and non-binary individuals (37.3%). Utilizing an online questionnaire, the study gathered data about preferences, habits, and emotional responses related to pornography consumption among TNB individuals. It underscores a significant finding: mainstream pornography frequently fails to authentically represent TNB identities, leaving participants feeling marginalized and objectified. The research identifies several themes among respondents, including robust critiques of heteronormative and cisnormative narratives pervasive in pornographic content. Participants highlighted how these norms perpetuate narrow and often stigmatizing portrayals of gender and sexuality, particularly for TNB individuals whose identities fall outside traditional binary constructs. Moreover, the study explores the comparisons drawn between cisgender and TNB pornography, revealing insights into how TNB individuals perceive and engage with these distinct forms of media.

Participants reported experiencing a complex range of emotions when encountering TNB representation in pornography, including feelings of empowerment stemming from visibility and representation, alongside moments of dysphoria and discomfort due to objectification and misrepresentation. For example, for many participants, viewing sexually explicit films featuring non-normative bodies, such as a male body with a vulva, represented a significant moment of validation. They expressed experiencing a sense of reflection and pleasure, seeing a body like their own portrayed positively in the media. A notable aspect of the findings is participants’ recognition of the potential educational value of queer pornography, which offers more inclusive and diverse depictions of bodies, expressions, and sexual practices. However, concerns were also raised about the fetishization of TNB identities and the perpetuation of harmful stereotypes in certain pornographic contexts.

Overall, the study advocates strongly for the need to promote ethical and inclusive representations of TNB individuals in pornographic media, emphasizing the importance of affirming TNB sexualities and identities through respectful and empowering depictions, challenging mainstream norms that often exclude or misrepresent diverse gender expressions [8].

Virtual Reality Sex

Virtual reality (VR) presents a unique opportunity to create immersive and personalized experiences [9]. For these reasons, VR has garnered interest in sexual contexts and mental health more broadly [10,11,12,13]. Specifically, VR could be employed to explore sexuality in ways that are safe, private, and comfortable for individuals. Sexual virtual reality, often referred to as "virtual reality sex" or “VR sex”, is a rapidly growing field that merges virtual reality technology with sexual experience [14]. This technology provides an immersive experience engaging both visual and sensory aspects, enabling users to partake in simulated sexual encounters or intimate interactions through VR devices [15].

Sexual virtual reality experiences can vary significantly, ranging from simple simulations of sexual encounters to more elaborate games or interactive experiences involving virtual characters. However, there is no specific study that has exclusively examined the use of virtual reality sex experienced by TNB individuals. For instance, it could be utilized to experiment with different gender identities or sexual roles in a controlled and risk-free environment. In fact, some devices allow users to customize the appearance of characters or create sexual scenarios tailored to their fantasies offering new possibilities to explore sexuality, fulfill fantasies, and provide companionship or sexual pleasure in a virtual environment. However, there are also concerns regarding ethics, privacy, and addiction associated with excessive use of this technology [16, 17]. It is important to note that sexual virtual reality is an evolving field, with further technological developments and changes in how it is utilized and regulated.

When considering the use of VR for sexual experiences among TNB individuals, we consider several ethical aspects that should be taken into account, including the following. Some of the concerns are related to VR use in general, emphasizing the importance of obtaining explicit consent for virtual sexual interactions and ensuring the privacy and security of users. Transparency about the content and potential impacts of VR sexual experiences is crucial, particularly for TNB individuals, who may face unique challenges. VR platforms should strive to represent diverse gender identities and sexual orientations accurately, avoiding harmful stereotypes. Furthermore, comprehensive psychological support resources should be available to address the potential emotional and psychological reactions associated with exploring sexuality in virtual environments. Users must be mindful of the potential effects of VR sexual technology on their mental health and well-being, promoting responsible use and access to support services to mitigate risks and foster a positive virtual experience.

Dating Apps

Dating apps are defined as mobile applications that allow individuals to seek romantic, sexual, and/or platonic connections with others through geolocative features, filters, and algorithms [18]. Since the development and proliferation of early apps such as Grindr (2009), Scruff (2010), and Tinder (2012) [19], there has been an increase in the number of apps developed and a diversification of the users. In the literary landscape, the most frequently mentioned reasons for the utilization of dating apps include the need for approval and conformity to the social group, the desire to socialize, explore, forget an ex-partner, connect with individuals who share the same sexual orientation, to find a love relationship, and seek an emotional or physical bond [20, 21]. Users of dating apps vary, encompassing different ages and gender groups [22]. More recently, dating apps and platforms specifically targeting a TNB audience have been introduced into the market, effectively expanding socialization opportunities for TNB individuals [23]. However, the experience in using these platforms can be complex and can vary significantly depending on the cultural and social context in which they are used.

For TNB individuals, this is particularly relevant considering the social hostilities they face [24]. Some studies on the use of dating apps by TNB individuals have shown that such apps offer TNB individuals a digital space for exploration and active social connections, where they can manage their identity and self-presentation safely and through mediated communication [19, 20, 25]. Online services offer the opportunity to find emotional support, meaningful connections, and relationships that may sometimes be difficult to establish in real-life spaces [26]. On the other hand, dating apps can present challenges and risks, exposing TNB individuals to gender stereotypes, prejudices, discriminations, microaggressions, fetishizations, offensive language, rejections, and verbal violence from other users and the apps themselves [6, 19, 27, 28].

Sharabi and colleagues [29] explored the relationship initiation experiences of LGBTQIA+ dating app users through a mixed methods study. Qualitative results include six challenges of dating apps, that is, lack of authenticity, bias and harassment, quantity over quality, ghosting the relationship, erasure of identity, and issues with physical proximity. Quantitatively, results showed that within the group "other gender" (N = 13; 5.6% of total sample), whose included participants who were non-binary or who preferred to self-describe, 30.8% (N = 4) stated "lack of authenticity" as a challenge, 23.1% (N = 3) spoke about "bias and harassment", and 15.4% (N = 2) fall under the theme "quantity over quality". Finding individuals who are open and respectful of diverse gender identities can represent a significant step toward fostering healthy and fulfilling relationships, including through the use of dating apps. Addressing the challenges and maximizing the benefits of dating apps for TNB people requires collective commitment from the platforms themselves, users, and society as a whole [30]. We believe it is essential for dating platforms to adopt policies and practices that promote inclusion, diversity, and respect for gender identities. Users need to be educated about gender identities and the importance of respecting differences. Society as a whole must combat discrimination and prejudice that can create a hostile environment for TNB people, both online and offline.

Sex Toys

Sexual merchandise, including sex toys, has become increasingly available through online markets and mainstream outlets, marking a shift from discreet locations to more public spaces [31]. This expansion mirrors the pattern seen with pornography, broadening the market, reducing costs, and normalizing the use of sexual products [32]. While existing research primarily focuses on cisgender individuals’ use of sex toys, there is a notable absence of studies concerning the TNB population [33]. Despite common assumptions, both solo and partnered use of sex toys is prevalent, with couple use being more frequent than solo use in both the US and Germany [33, 34]. Utilization of sex toys is associated with increased sexual pleasure, satisfaction, and functioning [33, 35,36,37].

The literature lacks insight into the use of sex toys among gender-diverse individuals, yet these tools hold potential in sexual therapy, as evidenced in studies involving cisgender populations [38]. The only study available investigated the use of sex toys among the TNB population in Italy [39]. Findings revealed a significant prevalence of sex toy usage within the sample, indicating a strong interest in this area, particularly in the context of intimate encounters with partners. Insights into popular sex toys among participants included external and internal vibrators and strap-ons. Participants voiced concerns about the limited availability of toys tailored to nonconforming bodies, exacerbated by factors like high costs and restricted access to products sold abroad. This reflects the influence of societal norms on experiences and enjoyment of sex toys for trans and nonbinary individuals. In the sample, sex toys played multifaceted roles, serving as tools for pleasure, exploration, and affirmation of gender identity.

For example, participants mentioned how sex toys, such as strap-ons, could make them feel they could identify with the “male body” [39]. They provided a means to engage in intimate experiences free from body dysphoria and helped individuals express their true selves. This result highlights that sex toys are potential allies for sexual counseling and therapy with TNB people. Particularly, in sex counseling with TNB individuals, sex toys offer avenues for experimentation and adaptation to changes resulting from hormone therapy or gender affirmation surgery [5, 40]. Embracing autoeroticism can facilitate exploration of novel means of pleasure and contribute to comfort with physical intimacy, boundary establishment, and the discovery of new avenues for sexual satisfaction, whether alone or with partners [5].

Sex Dolls and Sex Robots

Döring and Pöschl [32] defined sex dolls as “human-like, anatomically correct, anthropomorphic dolls created and used to generate or enhance sexual arousal and pleasure in both solo and partnered sex”. Sex dollsFootnote 1 possess attributes such as featuring at least one penetrable orifice and/or a part of the body that users can interact with. The allure of sex dolls lies in their adaptability regarding material, gender, ethnicity, age, physique, and skin, hair, and eye tones. While primarily associated with sexual purposes, sex dolls fulfill a broader spectrum of roles, including those of simulated romantic partners and social companions [41,42,43].

Additionally, Döring and Pöschl [32] defined sex robots as “human-like, fullbody, anatomically correct, humanoid service robots of different materials, technologies, and price ranges that are designed and used to generate or enhance sexual arousal and pleasure in both solo and partnered sex”. Therefore, sex robots offer comparable attributes and functionalities as sex dolls but are engineered to engage in conversation, express a repertoire of predetermined emotions and personalities, mimic sexual movements, and replicate orgasmic sounds integrating sensor technology, actuators, and artificial intelligence (AI).

Research in the field of sex tech, and specifically the potential clinical, sexological, and educational uses of sex dolls and robots, is evolving, albeit still in its infancy [44,45,46]. Moreover, up to now, the exploration of this topic has focused primarily on identifying the users of these sexual technologies [47], although there is a nearly complete absence of empirical evidence regarding the psychological and behavioral effects stemming from the ownership and use of these technologies [48].

In a narrative review proposed by Hanson and Locatelli [49], the authors described how the scientific literature has predominantly investigated the use of feminine dolls by heterosexual men, despite some studies identifying women's use of feminine dolls. However, the authors emphasize that limited attention has been paid so far to other possible owner-doll gender pairings. Indeed, to date, no studies have investigated either theoretically or practically the experiences of TNB individuals with sex dolls and robots. Hanson [50] conducted an ethnographic investigation by interviewing a sample of sex doll owners, including two non-binary participants and one transgender individual. In this study, a non-binary participant explained the ownership of sex dolls with the difficulty in finding long-term partners compatible with desired characteristics. Similarly, Langcaster-James and Bentley [51] carried out a mixed methods study through online doll forums to investigate the motivations and experiences of those who purchase and use dolls. In their study sample, two transgender individuals and two gender fluid participants were included. Unfortunately, the authors did not specify the gender identities and/or sexual orientations of the participants in the qualitative quotes. Therefore, it is not possible to identify the specific motivations of transgender and genderfluid participants.

However, the motivations driving a TNB individual's use of sex dolls or robots likely parallel those of any other individual: they may seek sexual fulfillment, explore their sexuality, address emotional or sexual needs, or simply seek companionship. In addition, for some TNB individuals, the process of transitioning or questioning one's gender identity may entail challenges related to intimacy and sexuality [5, 52,53,54]. They may also experience discrimination or ostracism in the society, which could render sex dolls or sex robots a safer or more comfortable choice for fulfilling their sexual or emotional needs. As with any use of sexual technologies, it is imperative that it be consensual and respectful, with particular attention to the privacy and safety of those involved.

Furthermore, the use of sex dolls or sex robots should not be viewed as a universal solution to the challenges regarding the sexuality or intimacy of TNB individuals, but rather as one of many available options for exploring and addressing such needs. In conclusion, we agree with Harper and Lievesley [48] on the necessity of establishing a research agenda that focuses on i) the diverse motivations of sex doll and robot owners, ii) the effects of sex dolls and robots on sexual cognition and behavior (e.g., sexual fantasies and aggression), and iii) social attitudes and responses to sex dolls and robots.

On these grounds, we emphasize the importance of considering the TNB population in this field of study. Indeed, given the identity characteristics that distinguish them and their sexual and relational needs, we believe it is crucial to inquire into transgender and non-binary individuals regarding the associations between their needs and these forms of sex tech.

How TNB people are represented and researched in the sex tech world

The existence of trans bodies and sexuality often gives rise to contradictions, manifesting between the prevailing social, political, and cultural landscapes and the prevalent interests and attractions, often characterized by fetishization, towards trans bodies [6]. On one hand, we witness a trend of rollback or suppression of TNB rights in many countries globally, such as the United States and Europe. On the other hand, the “Transgender” porn category on Pornhub saw a 75% growth, making it the 6th most viewed category in 2023 [55]. The visibility of TNB individuals has engendered a growing curiosity, occasionally intrusive and fetishizing, into their bodies and intimate lives [56]. There are instances in which sexual interests extend beyond mere curiosity to encompass issues of power and dominance [57]. This premise is extremely important when we reflect on sexuality and trans bodies in order to critically and systematically analyze the literature.

Trans pornography emerged in the late 1990s in California and then became increasingly popular worldwide. Currently there are production companies dedicated specifically to trans porn, in addition to independent and amateur productions (for a detailed historical excursus see Pezzutto & Comella [58]). In general, porn starring trans women is the most popular, although interest in trans men is growing. Anecdotally, it emerges that the attraction to trans women's bodies in porn videos is mainly related to an image of a hyper-feminine body with a large penis [58]. The largest consumers of pornography featuring trans women are heterosexual cisgender men. In contrast, with regard to porn featuring trans men as protagonists, the largest consumers are cisgender women and gay men [58]. An interesting result regarding consumers of porn starring trans women concerns the association between consumption of this content and the emotion of shame.

In a 2018 study, Billard [59] observes an association between feeling shame about attraction to trans bodies and a higher level of prejudice. In contrast, the author does not find a direct association between porn consumption and prejudice, rather a weak negative association. The findings of this study shed light the factors influencing attitudes toward transgender individuals. While the study revealed limited correlations between pornography consumption and negative attitudes towards TNB individuals, it unearthed substantial associations between feelings of shame surrounding sexual attraction and attitudes toward them. These results challenge conventional assumptions about the impact of pornography on social attitudes [59]. Beyond what has already been mentioned, studies on porn consumption with trans people are scarce. Moving on to other areas of technology use in sexuality, the literature on the use of sex dolls with trans bodies was also examined.

In contrast to sex toys, which are typically limited to specific body parts, sex dolls are designed to emulate the entirety of the human body for sexual purposes [32]. While no study so far is specifically dedicated to sex dolls with a trans body, this type of product is mentioned in the literature on sex dolls. The only available data is related to the fact that trans sex dolls exist and are in fact purchased, usually these are trans women with penises. That is, customers are given the option to create a basic female doll with the addition of a penis as on the RealDolls site [32, 60].

Sex robots, unlike conventional sex dolls, are equipped with sensors, actuators, and artificial intelligence capabilities. These robots have the capacity to engage in conversations, convey emotions, and exhibit preprogrammed personalities. Additionally, they possess the capacity for partially autonomous actions, including simulating sexual movements, assuming different sexual positions, and expressing orgasmic responses [32]. Here again the literature simply reports their existence and availability. Technology within the realm of sexuality, especially when it represents bodies that do not conform to the social norm, can be a very challenging ground to discuss. The intersection of technology and sexuality presents a complex landscape where two key considerations come to the forefront. Firstly, there’s the possibility to enhance representation and normalize diverse body types, encompassing gender diversity, body size, ability, and much more. By showcasing a broad spectrum of identities and experiences, technology can play a pivotal role in challenging societal beauty standards and fostering inclusivity. However, this positive aspiration is accompanied by a significant risk: the potential for fetishization and objectification of bodies that already face societal challenges.

When technology portrays non-conforming bodies solely through a sexual lens, it runs the danger of perpetuating harmful stereotypes and dehumanizing individuals. Thus, while embracing diversity in representation is crucial, it must be accompanied by a vigilant effort to respect the humanity and dignity of all individuals, ensuring that technology serves as a force for empowerment rather than further marginalization.

Nonetheless, there is still far too little research on the subject, both on attitudes and on the use of these kinds of devices. For this reason, it would be foolhardy to draw any conclusions. However, the issue of trans body representation and trans sexuality from porn to sex tech should take into consideration different levels of analysis in order not to risk oversimplifying an issue that has different levels of implications, from individual to systemic.

Strengths and limitations of the study

The narrative review contributes significantly by exploring the critical engagement of transgender and non-binary (TNB) individuals with sex technologies, an area often underrepresented in current literature. By foregrounding TNB voices and experiences, this review expands our understanding of diverse sexualities and identities within the realm of sex tech. However, it is crucial to acknowledge the scarcity of existing studies and theoretical frameworks concerning TNB engagement with sex technologies. We acknowledge the strength of considering both the perspective of TNB individuals as users and the representation of trans bodies in sex tech, addressing complex issues surrounding body representation, trans lives, social stigma, and attraction. This scarcity underscores the need for future research to investigate the implications and variables at play comprehensively. Addressing these gaps will be pivotal in advancing knowledge and developing inclusive approaches within the field.

Conclusions

The exploration of sex tech within the TNB community underscores the necessity of prioritizing diverse subjectivities and experiences within discussions of sexuality. From dating apps to sex toys, sex dolls, sex robots, and virtual reality sex, each facet of sex tech offers unique opportunities and challenges for TNB individuals seeking sexual fulfillment, intimacy, and exploration. While acknowledging the potential benefits of these technologies, it is important to address the socio-cultural context that often leads to objectification and fetishization of TNB sexuality. Moreover, ethical considerations, including consent, representation, privacy, and mental health implications, must guide the development and use of sex tech within this community. By centering TNB subjectivities and experiences, we can foster a more inclusive and empowering understanding of sexuality, celebrating autonomy, pleasure, and agency for all individuals, regardless of gender identity. Ultimately, further research and dialogue are essential to ensure that sex tech serves as a tool for empowerment and self-expression within the TNB community.