Skip to main content
Log in

Rapid cycling bipolar disease: New concepts and treatments

  • Published:
Current Psychiatry Reports Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Having been recognized by Kraeplin at the beginning of the 20th century [1•], rapid cycling was first described as a specific entity by Dunner et al. [2,3] in 1974. The prevalence of rapid cycling ranges from 12% to 20% in patients with bipolar disorder who are not selected for a high rate of cycling [4].

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References and Recommended Reading

  1. Calabrese JR, Shelton MD, Bowden CL, et al.: Bipolar rapid cycling: focus on depression as its hallmark. Compr Psychiatry 2001, 62(suppl):34–41. A good article.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Dunner DL, Fieve RR: Clinical factors in lithium carbonate prophylaxis failure. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1974, 30:229–233.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Dunner DL, Feiss JL, Fieve RR: The course of development of mania in patients with recurrent depression. Am J Psychiatry 1976, 133:905–908.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Baldessarini RJ, Tondo L, Floris G, Hennen J: Effects of rapid cycling on response to lithium maintenance treatment in 360 bipolar I and II disorder patients. J Affective Disord 2000, 61:13–22.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Bauer MS: Long-term treatment of rapid cycling bipolar affective disorder. Biol Psychiatry 1997, 42:201S-202S.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Altschuler LL, Post RM, Leverich GS: Antidepressant-induced mania and cycle acceleration: a controversy revisited. Am J Psychiatry 1995, 152:1130–1138.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Post RM: Approaches to treatment-resistant bipolar affectively ill patients. Clinical Neuropharmacology 1988, 11:93–104.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Maj M, Pirozzi R, Formicola AM, Tortorella A: Reliability and validity of four alternative definitions of rapid-cycling bipolar disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1999, 156:1421–1424. A very important paper describing alternate definitions of rapid cycling bipolar disorder.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Roy-Byrne PP, Joffe RT, Uhde TW, Post RM: Approaches to the evaluation and treatment of rapid-cycling affective illness. Br J Psychiatry 1984, 145:543–550.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Kramlinger KG, Post RM: Ultra-rapid and ultradian cycling in bipolar affective illness. Br J Psychiatry 1996, 168:314–323.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Kilzich N, Akiskal HS: Rapid cycling bipolar disorder: an overview. Psychiatr Clin North Am 1999, 22:585–607.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Akiskal HS: The prevalent clinical spectrum of bipolar disorders: beyond DSM-IV. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1996, 16(suppl):4S-14S. Excellent paper providing information beyond DSM-IV.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Post RM, Kramlinger KG, Altshuler LL, et al.: Treatment of rapid cycling bipolar illness. Psychopharmacol Bull 1990, 26:37–47.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Pazzaglia PJ, Post RM, Ketter TA, et al.: Preliminary controlled trial of nimodipine in ultra-rapid cycling affective dysregulation. Psychiatry Res 1993, 49:257–272.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Freeman MP, McElroy SL: Clinical picture and etiologic models of mixed states. Psychiatr Clin North Am 1999, 22:535–546.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Akiskal HS, Bourgeois ML, Angst J, et al.: Re-evaluating the prevalence of and diagnostic composition within the broad clinical spectrum of bipolar disorders. J Affective Disord 2000, 59(suppl):S5-S30. Another superb paper by Akiskal and colleagues.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Bowden CL, Calabrese JR, McElroy SL, et al.: The efficacy of lamotrigine in rapid cycling and non-rapid cycling patients with bipolar disorder. Biol Psychiatry 1999, 45:953–958.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Maj M, Magliano L, Pirozzi R, et al.: Is rapid cycling a valid subtype of bipolar disorder? Eur Neuopsychopharmacol 1995, 5:228–232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Tomitaka and Sakamoto 1994.

  20. Kilzieh N, Akiskal HS: Rapid-cycling bipolar disorder: An overview of research and clinical experience. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2000, 22:585–607.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Nurnberger J, Guroff JJ, Hannovit J, et al.: A family study of rapid-cycling bipolar illness. J Affective Disord 1988, 15:87–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Lish JD, Gyulai L, Resnick SM, et al.: A family history study of rapid-cycling bipolar disorder. Psychiatry Res 1993, 48:37–46.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Goodwin FK, Wirz-Justice A, Wehr TA: Evidence that the pathophysiology of depression and the mechanism of antidepressant drugs both involve alterations in circadian rhythms. Adv Biochem Psychopharmacol 1982, 32:1–11.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Wehr T, Sack D, Rosenthal N, Cowdry R: Rapid cycling affective disorder: contributing factors and treatment responses in 51 patients. Am J Psychiatry 1988, 145:179–184.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Wehr T: Can antidepressants induce rapid cycling? Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 1993, 50:495–496.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Roy-Byrne PP, Post RM, Uhde TW, et al.: The longitudinal course of recurrent affective illness: life chart data from research patients at the NIMH. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 1985, 317:1–34.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Akiskal HS: Chronic depression. Bull Menninger Clin 1991, 240:349–354.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Scott J: Chronic depression. Br. J. Psychiatry 1988, 153:287–297.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Bauer MS, Whybrow PC, Winokur A: Rapid cycling bipolar affective disorder, I: association with grade I hypothyroidism. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1990, 47:427–432.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Cowdry RW, Wehr TA, Zis AP, Goodwin FK: Thyroid abnormalities associated with rapid-cycling bipolar illness. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1983, 40:414–420.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Terao T: Subclinical hypothyroidism in recurrent mania. Biol Psychiatry 1993, 33:853–854.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Post RM, Kramlinger KG, Joffe RT, et al.: Rapid cycling bipolar affective disorder: lack of relation to hypothyroidism. Psychiatry Res 1997, 72:1–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Wirz-Justice A, Quinto C, Cajochen C, et al.: A rapid-cycling bipolar patient treated with long nights, bedrest, and light. Biol Psychiatry 1999, 45:1075–1077.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Ashman SB, Mont TH, Kupfer DJ, et al.: Relationship between social rhythms and mood in patients with rapid cycling bipolar disorder. Psychiatry Res 1999, 86:1–8. A good article.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Leibenluft E, Albert PS, Rosenthal NE, Wehr T: Relationship between sleep and mood in patients with rapid-cycling bipolar disorder. Psychiatry Res 1996, 63:161–168.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Post RM, Ketter TA, Pazzaglia PJ, et al.: Rational polypharmacy in the bipolar affective disorders. Epilepsy Res 1996, 11(suppl):153–180.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Post RM: Transduction of psychosocial stress into the neurobiology of recurrent affective disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1992, 149:999–1010.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Post RM, Rubinow DR, Ballenger JC: Conditioning and sensitization in the longitudinal course of affective illness. Br J Psychiatry 1986, 149:191–201.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Huber MT, Braun HA, Krieg JC: On the impact of episode sensitization on the course of recurrent affective disorders. J Psychiatr Res 2001, 35:49–57.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. D’Aquila PS, Peana AT, Tanda O, Sera G: Carbamazepine prevents imipramine-induced behavioural sensitization to the dopamine D(2)-like receptor agonist quinpirole. Eur J Pharmacol 2001, 416:107–111.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Dubovsky SL, Murphy J, Christiano J, Lee C: The calcium second messenger system in bipolar disorders: data supporting new research directions. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1992, 4:3–14.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Dubovsky SL, Christiano J, Daniell LC: Increased platelet intracellular calcium concentration in patients with bipolar affective disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1989, 46:632–638.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Dubovsky SL, Lee C, Christiano J: Elevated intracellular calcium ion concentration in bipolar depression. Biol Psychiatry 1991, 29:441–450.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Dubovsky SL, Lee C, Christiano J: Lithium decreases platelet intracellular calcium ion concentrations in bipolar patients. Lithium 1991, 2:167–174.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Dubovsky SL, Murphy J, Thomas M, Rademacher J: Abnormal intracellular calcium ion concentration in platelets and lymphocytes of bipolar patients. Am J Psychiatry 1992, 149:118–120.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Tan CH, Javors MA, Seleshi E: Effects of lithium on platelet ionic intracellular calcium concentration in patients with bipolar (manic-depressive) disorder and healthy controls. Life Sci 1990, 46:1175–1180.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Dubovsky SL, Murphy J, Thomas M, Rademacher J: Abnormal intracellular calcium ion concentration in platelets and lymphocytes of bipolar patients. Am J Psychiatry 1992, 149:118–120.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Okamoto Y, Kagaya A, Shinno H, et al.: Serotonin-induced platelet calcium mobilization is enhanced in mania. Life Sci 1995, 56:327–332.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Avissar S, Schreiber G: The involvement of guanine nucleotide binding proteins in the pathogenesis and treatment of affective disorders. Biol Psychiatry 1992, 31:435–459.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Friedman E, Wang HY, Levinson D, et al.: Altered platelet protein kinase C activity in bipolar affective disorder, manic episode. Biol Psychiatry 1993, 33:520–525.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Jope RS, Williams MB: Lithium and brain signal transduction systems. Biochem Pharmacol 1994, 47:429–441.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Mathews R, Li PP, Young T, et al.: Increased Gaq/11 immunoreactivity in postmortem occipital cortex from patients with bipolar affective disorder. Biol Psychiatry 1997, 41:649–656.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Schreiber G, Avissar S: G proteins as a biochemical tool for diagnosis and monitoring treatments of mental disorders. Isr Med Assoc J 2000, 2(suppl):86–91.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Shelton RC: Intracellular mechanisms of antidepressant drug action. Harv Rev Psychiatry 2000, 8:161–174.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Loman N, Johannsson O, Kristoffersson U, et al.: Family history of breast and ovarian cancers and BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations in a population-based series of early-onset breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 2001, 93:1215–1223.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Roy D, Calaf G, Hei TK: Profiling of differentially expressed genes induced by high linear energy transfer radiation in breast epithelial cells. Mol Carcinog 2001, 31:192–203.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Talapatra S, Thompson CB: Growth factor signaling in cell survival: implications for cancer treatment. JPET 2001, 298:873–878.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Sun M, Paciga JE, Feldman RI, et al.: Phosphatidylinositol-3-OH kinase (PI3K)/AKT2, activated in breast cancer, regulates and is induced by estrogen receptor alpha (ERalpha) via interaction between ERalpha and P13K. Cancer Res 2001, 61:5985–5991. A good review.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Welsh JB, Sapinoso LM, Su AI, et al.: Analysis of gene expression identifies candidate markers and pharmacological targets in prostate cancer. Cancer Res 2001, 61:5974–5978.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Keshelava N, Zao JJ, Chen P, et al.: Loss of p53 function confers high level multidrug resistance in neuroblastoma cell lines. Cancer Res 2001, 61:6185–6195.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Pruitt K, Der CJ: Ras and Rho regulation of the cell cycle and oncogenesis. Cancer Lett 2001, 171:1–10.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Widschwendler M, Berger J, Muller HM, et al.: Epigenetic down regulation of the retinoic acid receptor-beta 2 gene in breast cancer. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2001, 6:193–201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Lal A, Peters H, St. Croix B, et al.: Transcriptional response to hypoxia in human tumors. J Natl Cancer Inst 2001, 93:1337–1343.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Mielnicki LM, Asch HL, Asch BB: Genes, chromatin, and breast cancer: an epigenetic tale. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2001, 6:169–182.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Sakorafus GH, Tsiotos GG: Molecular biology of pancreatic cancer-potential clinical implications. Biodrugs 2001, 15:439–452.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. West M, Blanchette C, Dressman H, et al.: Predicting the clinical status of human breast cancer by using gene expression profiles. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2001, 98:11462–11467.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Dubovsky SL, Murphy J, Christiano J, Lee C: The calcium second messenger system in bipolar disorders: data supporting new research directions. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1992, 4:3–14.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Wang JF, Bown CD, Chen B, Young LT: Identification of mood stabilizer-regulated genes by differential display PCR. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2001, 4:65–74. Ecellent review.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Manji HK, Bebchuk JM, Moore GJ, et al.: Modulation of CNS signal transduction pathways and gene expression by moodstabilizing agents: therapeutic implications. J Clin Psychiatry 1999, 60(suppl):27–39.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Moore GJ, Bebchuk JM, Hasanat K, et al.: Lithium increases N-acetyl-aspartate in the human brain: in vivo evidence in support of bcl-2′s neurotrophic effects? Biol Psychiatry 2000, 48:1–8. A good review.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Chen G, Masana MI, Manji HK: Lithium regulates PKCmediated intracellular cross-talk and gene expression in the CNS in vivo. Bipolar Disorders 2000, 2:217–236.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Berk M: Lamotrigine and the treatment of mania in bipolar disorder. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 1999, 9:119–123.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  73. Xie X, Hagan RM: Cellular and molecular actions of lamotrigine: possible mechanisms of efficacy in bipolar disorder. Neuropsychobiology 1998, 38:119–130.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Avissar S, Schreiber G: Interaction of antibipolar and antidepressant treatments with receptor-coupled G proteins. Pharmacopsychiatry 1992, 25:44–50.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Cole AJ, Scott J, Ferrier IN, Eccleston D: Patterns of treatment resistance in bipolar affective disorder. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1993, 88:121–123.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Kusumaker V, Yatham LN, Haslam DRS, et al.: Treatment of mania, mixed state, and rapid cycling. Can J Psychiatry 1997, 42(suppl):79S-86S.

    Google Scholar 

  77. Gershon ES, Soares JC: Current therapeutic profile of lithium. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1997, 54:16–18.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Kleindiest N, Greil W: Differential efficacy of lithium and carbamazepine in the prophylaxis of bipolar disorder: results of the MAP study. Neuropsychobiology 2000, 42(suppl):2–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  79. Okuma T: Effects of carbamazepine and lithium on affective disorders. Neuropsychobiology 1993, 27:138–145.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Schneider AL, Wilcox CS: Divalproate augmentation in lithium-resistant rapid cycling mania in four geriatric patients. J Affective Disord 1998, 47:201–205.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Schaff MR, Fawcett J, Zajecka J: Divalproex sodium in the treatment of refractory affective disorders. Compr Psychiatry 1993, 54:380–384.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Expert Consensus Panel: Treatment of bipolar disorder. Compr Psychiatry 1996, 57(suppl):1–88.

    Google Scholar 

  83. Bowden CL, Lecrubier Y, Bauer MS, et al.: Maintenance therapies for classic and other forms of bipolar disorder. J Affective Disord 2000, 59(suppl):S57-S67. A good review.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  84. Bowden CL, Brugger AM, Swann AC: Efficacy of divalproex vs lithium in the treatment of mania. JAMA 1994, 271:918–924.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Walden J, Schaerer L, Schloesser S, Grunze H: An open longitudinal study of patients with bipolar rapid cycling treated with lithium or lamotrigine for mood stabilization. Bipolar Disord 2000, 2:336–339.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Calabrese JR, Suppes T, Bowden CL, et al.: A double-blind, placebo-controlled, prophylaxis study of lamotrigine in rapid-cycling bipolar disorder. Compr Psychiatry 2000, 61:841–850.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Bowden CL, Calabrese JR, Rapaport M, et al.: Lamotrigine demonstrates long term mood stabilization in recently manic patients. Paper presented at Annual Meeting of the New Clinical Drug Evaluation Unit (NCDEU); Phoenix, AZ. May 28–31, 2001;

  88. Post RM, Frye MA, Denicoff KD, et al.: Emerging trends in the treatment of rapid cycling bipolar disorder: a selected review. Bipolar Disord 2000, 2:305–315.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Brunet G, Cerlich B, Robert P: Open trial of a calcium antagonist, nimodipine, in acute mania. Clin Neuropharmacol 1990, 13:224–228.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Goodnick PJ: The use of nimodipine in the treatment of mood disorders. Bipolar Disord 2000, 2:165–173.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Davanzo PA, Krah N, Kleiner J, McCracken J: Nimodipine treatment of an adolescent with ultradian cycling bipolar affective illness. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 1999, 9:51–61.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Manna V: Disturbi affectivi bipolari e ruolo del calcio intraneuronale. Effetti terapeutici del trattamento con cali di litio e/o calcio antagonista in pazienti con rapida inversione di polarita. Minerva Medicine 1991, 82:757–763.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Pazzaglia PJ, Post RM, Ketter TA, et al.: Nimodipine monotherapy and carbamazepine augmentation in patients with refractory recurrent affective illness. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1998, 18:404–413.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Banov MD, Zarate CA, Tohen M, et al.: Clozapine therapy in refractory affective disorders: polarity predicts response in long-term follow-up. J Clin Psychiatry 1994, 55:295–300.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Calabrese JR, Meltzer HY, Markovitz PJ: Clozapine prophylaxis in rapid cycling bipolar disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1991, 11:396–397.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Calabrese JR, Fatemi SH, Woyshville MJ: Antidepressant effects of lamotrigine in rapid cycling bipolar disorder [letter]. Am J Psychiatry 1996, 153:1236.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Frye M, Altschuler LL, Bitran JE: Clozapine in rapid cycling bipolar disorder [letter]. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1996, 16:87–90.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Klapheke MM: Clozapine, ECT, and schizoaffective disorder, bipolar type. Convuls Ther 1991, 7:36–39.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. McElroy SL, Dessain EC, Pope HG, et al.: Clozapine in the treatment of psychotic mood disorders, schizoaffective disorder, and schizophrenia. J Clin Psychiatry 1991, 52:411–414.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Small JG, Klapper MH, Milstein V, et al.: Comparison of therapeutic modalities for mania. Psychopharmacol Bull 1996, 32:516.

    Google Scholar 

  101. Suppes T, McElroy SL, Gilbert J, et al.: Clozapine in the treatment of dysphoric mania. Biol Psychiatry 1992, 32:270–280.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Zarate CA, Tohen M, Banov MD, et al.: Is clozapine a mood stabilizer? J Clin Psychiatry 1995, 56:108–112.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Ghaemi SN, Goodwin FK: Use of atypical antipsychotic agents in bipolar and schizoaffective disorders: review of the empirical literature. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1999, 19:354–361.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Suppes T, Phillips KA, Judd CR: Clozapine treatment of nonpsychotic rapid cycling bipolar disorder: a report of three cases. Biol Psychiatry 1994, 36:338–340.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Green AI, Tohen M, Patel JK, et al.: Clozapine in the treatment of refractory psychotic mania. Am J Psychiatry 2000, 157:982–986.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Suppes T, Webb A, Paul B, et al.: Clinical outcome in a randomized 1-year trial of clozapine versus treatment as usual for patients with treatment-resistant illness and a history of mania. Am J Psychiatry 1999, 156:1164–1169.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Madhusoodanan S, Brenner R, Araujo L, Abaza A: Efficacy of risperidone treatment for psychoses associated with schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, bipolar disorder, or senile dementia in 11 geriatric patients: a case series. J Clin Psychiatry 1995, 56:514–518.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Singh AN, Catalan J: Risperidone in HIV-related manic psychosis. Lancet 1994, 344:1029–1030.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Tohen M, Zarate CA, Centorrino F, et al.: Risperidone in the treatment of mania. J Clin Psychiatry 1996, 57:249–253.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Tohen M, Zarate CA, Centorrino F, et al.: Risperidone in the treatment of mania [abstract]. Psychopharmacol Bull 1996, 31:626.

    Google Scholar 

  111. Tohen M, Sanger TM, McElroy SL, et al.: Olanzapine versus placebo in the treatment of acute mania. Am J Psychiatry 1999, 156:702–709.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Tohen M, Jacobs TG, Grundy SL, et al.: Efficacy of olanzapine in acute bipolar mania: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. The Olanzapine HGGW Study Group. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2000, 57:841–849.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Berk M, Ichim L, Brook L: Olanzapine compared to lithium in mania: a double-blind randomized controlled trial. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1999, 14:339–342.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Anonymous: Atypical antipsychotics for treatment of depression in schizophrenia and affective disorders. Collaborative Working Group on Clinical Trial Evaluations. J Clin Psychiatry 1998, 59(suppl):41–45.

    Google Scholar 

  115. Borysewicz K, Borysewicz W: A case of mania follwoing olanzapine administration. Psychiatria Polska 2000, 34:299–306.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Simon AE, Aubry JM, Malky L, Bertschy G: Hypomania-like syndrome induced by olanzapine. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1999, 14:377–378.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Fitz-Gerald MJ, Pinkofsky HB, Brannon G, et al.: Olanzapineinduced mania [letter]. Am J Psychiatry 1999, 156:1114.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Benazzi F: Olanzapine-induced psychotic mania in bipolar schizoaffective disorder [letter]. Eur Psychiatry 1999, 14:410–411.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. John V, Rapp M, Pies R: Aggression, agitation, and mania with olanzapine [letter]. Can J Psychiatry 1998, 43:1054.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Pozo P, Aleantara AG: Mania-like syndrome in a patient with chronic schizophrenia during olanzapine treatment [letter]. J Psychiatry Neurosci 1998, 23:309–310.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Reeves RR, McBride WA, Brannon GE: Olanzapine-induced mania (letter). J Am Osteopath Assoc 1998, 98:550.

    Google Scholar 

  122. Lindenmayer JP, Klebanov R: Olanzapine-induced manic-like syndrome [letter]. J Clin Psychiatry 1998, 59:318–319.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. London JA: Mania associated with olanzapine [letter]. J Am Acad Child Adol Psychiatry 1998, 37:135–136.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Solhkhah R, Finkel J, Hird S: Possible risperidone-induced visual hallucinations [letter]. J Am Acad Child Adol Psychiatry 2000, 39:1074–1075.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Mayerhoff D, Vital-Herne J, Lesser M, Brenner R: Alprazolaminduced manic reaction. N Y State J Med 1986, 86:320.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Cole JO, Kando JC: Adverse behavioral events reported in patients taking alprazolam and other benzodiazepines. Compr Psychiatry 1995, 54(suppl):49–61.

    Google Scholar 

  127. Bauer M, Hellweg R, Baumgartner A: High dosage thyroxine treatment in therapy and prevention refractory patients with affective psychoses. Nervenarzt 1998, 69:1019–1022.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Gjessing LR: Disturbances of somatic function in catatonia with a periodic course and their compensation. J Ment Sci 1938, 84:608–621.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Stancer HC, Persad E: Treatment of intractable rapid-cycling manic-depressive disorder with levothyroxine: clinical observations. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982, 39:311–312.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Afflelou S, Auriacombe M, Cazenave M, et al.: High dose levothyroxine for treatment of rapid cycling bipolar disorder: Review of the literature and application to 6 subjects. Encephale 1997, 23:209–217.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Bauer MS, Whybrow PC: Rapid cycling bipolar affective disorder. II. Treatment of refractory rapid cycling with highdose levothyroixine: a preliminary study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1990, 47:435–440.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Bernstein L: Abrupt cessation of rapid-cycling bipolar disorder with the addition of low-dose L-tetraiodothyronine to lithium. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1992, 12:443–444.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Bauer MS, Whybrow PC: The effect of changing thyroid function on cyclic affective illness in a human subject. Am J Psychiatry 1986, 143:636.

    Google Scholar 

  134. Extein I, Pottash ALC, Gold MS: Does subclinical hypothyroidism predispose to tricyclic-induced rapid mood cycles. J Clin Psychiatry 1982, 43:290–291.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Cooper DE: Subclinical hypothyroidism. N Engl J Med 2001, 345:260–265.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Hopkins HS, Gelenberg AJ: Treatment of bipolar disorder: how far have we come? Psychopharmacol Bull 1994, 30:27–38.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Bergsholm P, Martinsen EW, Svoen N, et al.: Affective disorders. Drug treatment and electroconvulsive therapy. Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen 1992, 112:2651–2656.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Zornberg GL, Pope HG: Treatment of depression in bipolar disorder: new directions for research. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1993, 13:397–408.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Mukherjee S, Sackeim HA, Schnur DB: Electroconvulsive therapy of acute manic episodes: a review of 50 years’ experience. Am J Psychiatry 1994, 151:169–176.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Berman E, Wolpert EA: Intractable manic-depressive psychosis with rapid cycling in an 18-year-old woman successfully treated with electroconvulsive therapy. J Nerv Ment Dis 1987, 175:236–239.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Mosolov SN, Moshchevitin SL: Use of electroconvulsive therapy for breaking the continuous course of drug-resistant affective and schizoaffective psychoses. Zhurnal Nevropatologii i Psikhiatrii Imeni S-S Korsakova 1990, 90:121–125.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  142. Wolpert EA, Berman V, Bernstein M: Efficacy of electroconvulsive therapy in continuous rapid cycling bipolar disorder. Psychiatr Ann 1999, 29:679–683.

    Google Scholar 

  143. Fink M: Indications for the use of ECT. Psychopharmacol Bull 1995, 30:269–275.

    Google Scholar 

  144. Milstein V, Small JG, Klapper MH: Uni-versus bilateral ECT in the treatment of mania. Convuls Ther 1987, 3:1–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Small JG, Small IF, Milstein V: Manic symptoms: an indication for bilateral ECT. Biol Psychiatry 1985, 20:125–134.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Schnur DB, Mukherjee S, Sackeim HA, et al.: Symptomatic predictors of ECT response in medication-nonresponsive bipolar illness. J Clin Psychiatry 1992, 53:63–66.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Swoboda E, Conca A, Konig P, et al.: Maintenance electroconvulsive therapy in affective and schizoaffective disorder. Neuropsychobiology 2001, 43:23–28.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Goodwin FK, Wirz-Justice A, Wehr TA: Evidence that the pathophysiology of depression and the mechanism of antidepressant drugs both involve alterations in circadian rhythms. Adv Biochem Psychopharmacol 1982, 32:1–11.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  149. Kusumi I, Ohmori T, Kohsaka M, et al.: Chronobiological approach for treatment-resistant rapid cycling affective disorders. Biol. Psychiatry 1995, 37:553–559.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  150. Stoll AL, Sachs GS, Cohen BM, et al.: Choline in the treatment of rapid-cycling bipolar disorder: clinical and neurochemical findings in lithium-treated patients. Biol. Psychiatry 1996, 40:382–388.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Hayes SG: Acetazolamide in bipolar affective disorders. Ann Clin Psychiatry 2001, 6:91–98.

    Google Scholar 

  152. Post RM: Comparative pharmacology of bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 1999, 39:153–158.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. Post RM, Frye MA, Denicoff K, et al.: Beyond lithium in the treatment of bipolar illness. Neuropsychobiology 1998, 19:206–219.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  154. Grisaru N, Chudakov B, Yaroslavosky Y, Belmaker RH: Transcranial magnetic stimulation in mania: a controlled study. Am J Psychiatry 1998, 155:1608–1610. A good review.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  155. Ghaemi SN, Gaughan S: Novel anticonvulsants: a new generation of mood stabilizers? Harv Rev Psychiatry 2000, 8:1–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  156. Calabrese JR, Bowden CL, McElroy SL, et al.: Spectrum of activity of lamotrigine in treatment-refractory bipolar disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1999, 156:1019–1023.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  157. Calabrese JR, Bowden CL, Sachs GS, et al.: A double-blind placebo-controlled study of lamotrigine monotherapy in outpatients with bipolar I depression. Lamictal 602 Study Group. J Clin Psychiaty 1999, 60:79–88.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  158. Healy E, Mckeon P: Rapid cycling mood disorder: a review. Ir J Psychol Med 1997, 14:26–31.

    Google Scholar 

  159. Montaner JSG, Mellors JW: Antiretroviral therapy for previously treated patients. N Engl J Med 2001, 345:452–454.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  160. Albrecht MA, Bosch RJ, Hammer SM, et al.: Nelfinavir, efavirenz, or both after the failure of nucleoside treatment of HIV infection. N Engl J Med 2001, 345:398–407.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  161. Sachs GS, Printz DJ, Kahn DA, et al.: The Expert Consensus Guideline Series: medication treatment of bipolar disorder 2000. Postgrad Med 2000, Spec No:pp1–104.

  162. Frances AJ, Kahn DA, Carpenter D, et al.: The Expert Consensus Guidelines for treating depression in bipolar disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1998, 59(suppl):73–79. A good review.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  163. Moller H-J, Grunze H: Have some guidelines for the treatment of acute bipolar depression gone too far in the restriction of antidepressants? Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2000, 25:57–68.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Dubovsky, S.L. Rapid cycling bipolar disease: New concepts and treatments. Curr Psychiatry Rep 3, 451–462 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-001-0038-6

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-001-0038-6

Keywords

Navigation