Abstract
Developmental dyslexia is a common neurodevelopmental disorder that is associated with alterations in the behavioral and neural processing of speech sounds, but the scope and nature of that association is uncertain. It has been proposed that more variable auditory processing could underlie some of the core deficits in this disorder. In the current study, magnetoencephalography (MEG) data were acquired from adults with and without dyslexia while they passively listened to or actively categorized tokens from a /ba/-/da/ consonant continuum. We observed no significant group difference in active categorical perception of this continuum in either of our two behavioral assessments. During passive listening, adults with dyslexia exhibited neural responses that were as consistent as those of typically reading adults in six cortical regions associated with auditory perception, language, and reading. However, they exhibited significantly less consistency in the left supramarginal gyrus, where greater inconsistency correlated significantly with worse decoding skills in the group with dyslexia. The group difference in the left supramarginal gyrus was evident only when neural data were binned with a high temporal resolution and was only significant during the passive condition. Interestingly, consistency significantly improved in both groups during active categorization versus passive listening. These findings suggest that adults with dyslexia exhibit typical levels of neural consistency in response to speech sounds with the exception of the left supramarginal gyrus and that this consistency increases during active versus passive perception of speech sounds similarly in the two groups.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
De-identified data is available upon request to the corresponding author.
Code availability
Analysis code is available upon request to the corresponding author.
References
Beach, S. D., Ozernov-Palchik, O., May, S. C., Centanni, T. M., Gabrieli, J. D. E., & Pantazis, D. (2021). Neural decoding reveals concurrent phonemic and subphonemic representations of speech across tasks. Neurobiology of Language, 2(2), 254–279. https://doi.org/10.1162/nol_a_00034
Blomert, L., & Mitterer, H. (2004). The fragile nature of the speech-perception deficit in dyslexia: Natural vs. synthetic speech. Brain and Language, 89(1), 21–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0093-934X(03)00305-5
Boets, B., de Beeck, H., Vandermosten, M., Scott, S., Gillebert, C., Mantini, D., … Ghesquiere, P. (2013). Intact but less accessible phonetic representations in adults with dyslexia. Science, 342(6163), 1251–1254. Retrieved from http://www.sciencemag.org/content/342/6163/1251.short
Catts, H. W., Adlof, S. M., Hogan, iffany P., & Weismer, S. E. (2005). Are specific language impairment and dyslexia distinct disorders? Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research, 48(6), 1378. Retrieved from http://jslhr.pubs.asha.org/article.aspx?articleid=1783909
Centanni, T. M., Booker, A. B., Sloan, A. M., Chen, F., Maher, B. J., Carraway, R. S., … Kilgard, M. P. (2014a). Knockdown of the dyslexia-associated gene Kiaa0319 impairs temporal responses to speech stimuli in rat primary auditory cortex. Cerebral Cortex, 24(7), 1753–1766. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bht028
Centanni, T. M., Chen, F., Booker, A. B., Engineer, C. T., Sloan, A. M., Rennaker, R. L., … Kilgard, M. P. (2014b). Speech sound processing deficits and training-induced neural plasticity in rats with dyslexia gene knockdown. PloS One, 9(5), e98439. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0098439
Centanni, T. M., Engineer, C. T., & Kilgard, M. P. (2013). Cortical speech-evoked response patterns in multiple auditory fields are correlated with behavioral discrimination ability. Journal of Neurophysiology, 110(1), 177–189. https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00092.2013
Centanni, T. M., Norton, E. S., Ozernov-Palchik, O., Park, A., Beach, S. D., Halverson, K., … Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2019). Disrupted left fusiform response to print in beginning kindergartners is associated with subsequent reading. NeuroImage: Clinical, 22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2019.101715
Centanni, T., Norton, E., Ozernov-Palchik, O., Park, A., Beach, S., Halverson, K., … Gabrieli, J. (2019). Disrupted left fusiform response to print in beginning kindergartners is associated with subsequent reading. NeuroImage. Clinical, 22, 101715. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2213158219300658
Centanni, T., Pantazis, D., Truong, D., Gruen, J., Gabrieli, J., & Hogan, T. (2018). Increased variability of stimulus-driven cortical responses is associated with genetic variability in children with and without dyslexia. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 34, 7–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2018.05.008
Chan, A. M., Dykstra, A. R., Jayaram, V., Leonard, M. K., Travis, K. E., Gygi, B., … Cash, S. S. (2014). Speech-specific tuning of neurons in human superior temporal gyrus. Cerebral Cortex (New York, N.Y. : 1991), 24(10), 2679–2693. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bht127
Chang, E., Rieger, J., Johnson, K., Berger, M. S., Barbaro, N. M., & Knight, R. T. (2010). Categorical speech representation in human superior temporal gyrus. Nature Neuroscience, 13(11), 1428–1432. Retrieved from http://www.nature.com/articles/nn.2641
Cohen, L., Lehéricy, S., Chochon, F., Lemer, C., Rivaud, S., & Dehaene, S. (2002). Language-specific tuning of visual cortex? Functional properties of the Visual Word Form Area. Brain : A Journal of Neurology, 125(Pt 5), 1054–1069.
Cohen, M., & Maunsell, J. (2009). Attention improves performance primarily by reducing interneuronal correlations. Nature Neuroscience, 12(12), 1594. Retrieved from https://idp.nature.com/authorize/casa?redirect_uri=https://www.nature.com/articles/nn.2439.pdf%3Forigin%3Dppub&casa_token=FXd9XF89RAkAAAAA:pPYlOgcBX7Fofxb-pCR4GdrGxXSgR5_j0jKSFnLLg5rMNAfnWrbmqvvOlG59DA0KdAlVu_ReSehFXw
Dale, A. M., Liu, A. K., Fischl, B. R., Buckner, R. L., Belliveau, J. W., Lewine, J. D., & Halgren, E. (2000). Dynamic statistical parametric mapping: combining fMRI and MEG for high-resolution imaging of cortical activity. Neuron, 26(1), 55–67.
Darki, F., Peyrard-Janvid, M., Matsson, H., Kere, J., & Klingberg, T. (2014). DCDC2 Polymorphism is associated with left temporoparietal gray and white matter structures during development. The Journal of Neuroscience, 34(43), 14455–14462. Retrieved from http://www.jneurosci.org/content/34/43/14455.short
Desikan, R. S., Ségonne, F., Fischl, B., Quinn, B. T., Dickerson, B. C., Blacker, D., ... & Killiany, R. J. (2006). An automated labeling system for subdividing the human cerebral cortex on MRI scans into gyral based regions of interest. Neuroimage, 31(3), 968–980.
Destrieux, C., Fischl, B., Dale, A., & Halgren, E. (2010). Automatic parcellation of human cortical gyri and sulci using standard anatomical nomenclature. NeuroImage, 53(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.06.010
Engineer, C. T., Perez, C. A., Chen, Y. T. H., Carraway, R. S., Reed, A. C., Shetake, J. A., … Kilgard, M. P. (2008). Cortical activity patterns predict speech discrimination ability. Nature Neuroscience, 11(5), 603–608
Fischl, B. (2012). FreeSurfer. Neuroimage, 62(2), 774–781. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053811912000389
Hamilton, L. S., Edwards, E., & Chang, E. F. (2018). A spatial map of onset and sustained responses to speech in the human superior temporal gyrus. Current Biology, 28(12), 1860-1871.e4. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CUB.2018.04.033
Hancock, R., Pugh, K. R., & Hoeft, F. (2017). Neural noise hypothesis of developmental dyslexia. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 21(6), 434–448. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2017.03.008
Hari, R., & Kiesilä, P. (1996). Deficit of temporal auditory processing in dyslexic adults. Neuroscience Letters, 205(2), 138–140.
Helenius, P., Uutela, K., & Hari, R. (1999). Auditory stream segregation in dyslexic adults. Brain, 122(5), 907–913.
Hickok, G., & Poeppel, D. (2007). The cortical organization of speech processing. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 8(5), 393–402. Retrieved from http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v8/n5/abs/nrn2113.html
Hornickel, J., & Kraus, N. (2013). Unstable Representation of Sound: A Biological Marker of Dyslexia. The Journal of Neuroscience, 33(8), 3500–3504.
Huang, M. X., Mosher, J. C., & Leahy, R. M. (1999). A sensor-weighted overlapping-sphere head model and exhaustive head model comparison for MEG. Physics in Medicine & Biology, 44(2), 423.
Joanisse, M. F., Manis, F. R., Keating, P., & Seidenberg, M. S. (2000). Language deficits in dyslexic children: Speech perception, phonology, and morphology. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 77(1), 30–60.
Kaufman, A., & Kaufman, N. (2004). Kaufman brief intelligence test. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118660584.ese1325/summary
Krauss, P., Tziridis, K., Schilling, A., & Schulze, H. (2018). Cross-Modal Stochastic Resonance as a Universal Principle to Enhance Sensory Processing. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 12, 578. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2018.00578
Lam, S. S. Y., White-Schwoch, T., Zecker, S. G., Hornickel, J., & Kraus, N. (2017). Neural stability: A reflection of automaticity in reading. Neuropsychologia, 103, 162–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.07.023
Lee, Y. S., Turkeltaub, P., Granger, R., & Raizada, R. D. S. (2012). Categorical speech processing in Broca’s area: An fMRI study using multivariate pattern-based analysis. Journal of Neuroscience, 32(11), 3942–3948. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3814-11.2012
Lehongre, K., Ramus, F., Villiermet, N., Schwartz, D., & Giraud, A. L. (2011). Altered low-gamma sampling in auditory cortex accounts for the three main facets of dyslexia. Neuron, 72(6), 1080–1090.
Lin, F. H., Tsai, K. W. K., Chu, Y. H., Witzel, T., Nummenmaa, A., Raij, T., … Belliveau, J. W. (2012). Ultrafast inverse imaging techniques for fMRI. NeuroImage, 62(2), 699–705. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.01.072
Martin, A., Schurz, M., Kronbichler, M., & Richlan, F. (2015). Reading in the brain of children and adults: A meta-analysis of 40 functional magnetic resonance imaging studies. Human Brain Mapping, 36(5), 1963–1981. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.22749
Maurer, U., Bucher, K., Brem, S., & Brandeis, D. (2003). Altered responses to tone and phoneme mismatch in kindergartners at familial dyslexia risk. NeuroReport, 14(17), 2245–2250. Retrieved from http://journals.lww.com/neuroreport/Abstract/2003/12020/Altered_responses_to_tone_and_phoneme_mismatch_in.22.aspx
McAdams, C., & Maunsell, J. (1999). Effects of attention on the reliability of individual neurons in monkey visual cortex. Neuron, 23(4), 765–773. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627301800349
McCarthy, J. H., Hogan, T. P., & Catts, H. W. (2012). Is weak oral language associated with poor spelling in school-age children with specific language impairment, dyslexia or both? Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 26(9), 791–805. https://doi.org/10.3109/02699206.2012.702185
Mesgarani, N., Cheung, C., Johnson, K., & Chang, E. F. (2014). Phonetic feature encoding in human superior temporal gyrus. Science (New York, N.Y.), 343(6174), 1006–1010. Retrieved from https://www.sciencemag.org/content/343/6174/1006.full.pdf%5Cnhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24482117
Neef, N. E., Müller, B., Liebig, J., Schaadt, G., Grigutsch, M., Gunter, T. C., … Friederici, A. D. (2017). Dyslexia risk gene relates to representation of sound in the auditory brainstem. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 24, 63–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2017.01.008
Neef, N. E., Schaadt, G., & Friederici, A. D. (2016). Auditory brainstem responses to stop consonants predict literacy. Clinical Neurophysiology, 128(3), 484–494. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2016.12.007
Noordenbos, M., & Serniclaes, W. (2015). The categorical perception deficit in dyslexia: A meta-analysis. Scientific Studies of Reading, 19(5), 340–359. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2015.1052455
Noordenbos, M. W., Segers, E., Serniclaes, W., & Verhoeven, L. (2013). Neural evidence of the allophonic mode of speech perception in adults with dyslexia. Clinical Neurophysiology, 124(6), 1151–1162.
Norton, E. S., Black, J. M., Stanley, L. M., Tanaka, H., Gabrieli, J. D. E., Sawyer, C., & Hoeft, F. (2014). Functional neuroanatomical evidence for the double-deficit hypothesis of developmental dyslexia. Neuropsychologia, 61(1), 235–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.06.015
Ozernov-Palchik, O., Centanni, T. M., Beach, S. D., May, S., Hogan, T., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2021). Distinct neural substrates of individual differences in components of reading comprehension in adults with or without dyslexia. NeuroImage, 226(November 2020), 117570. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117570
Ozernov-Palchik, Ola, Beach, S. D., Brown, M., Centanni, T., Gaab, N., Kuperberg, G., … Gabrieli, J. (2021). Speech-specific perceptual adaptation deficits in children and adults with dyslexia. Psyarxiv.Com. https://doi.org/10.31234/OSF.IO/4N5EC
Ramus, F., Rosen, S., Dakin, S. C., Day, B. L., Castellote, J. M., White, S., & Frith, U. (2003). Theories of developmental dyslexia: insights from a multiple case study of dyslexic adults. Brain, 126(4), 841–865.
Perez, C. A., Engineer, C. T., Jakkamsetti, V., Carraway, R. S., Perry, M. S., & Kilgard, M. P. (2012). Different Timescales for the Neural Coding of Consonant and Vowel Sounds. Cerebral Cortex, 23(3), 670–683.
Perrachione, T. K., Tufo, S. Del, Winter, R., Murtagh, J., Cyr, A., Chang, P., … Gabrieli, J. (2016). Dysfunction of Rapid Neural Adaptation in Dyslexia. Neuron, 92(6), 1383–1397
Peterson, R. L., & Pennington, B. F. (2015). Developmental dyslexia. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 283–307.
Picton, T. W., & Hillyard, S. A. (1974). Human auditory evoked potentials. II: Effects of attention. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 36(C), 191–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-4694(74)90156-4
Poeppel, D. (2003). The analysis of speech in different temporal integration windows: cerebral lateralization as “asymmetric sampling in time.” Speech Communication, 41(1), 245–255. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167639302001073
Poghosyan, V., & Ioannides, A. A. (2008). Attention modulates earliest responses in the primary auditory and visual cortices. Neuron, 58(5), 802–813. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2008.04.013
Raizada, R. D. S., & Poldrack, R. A. (2007). Selective amplification of stimulus differences during categorical processing of speech. Neuron, 56(4), 726–740. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.NEURON.2007.11.001
Renvall, H., & Hari, R. (2002). Auditory cortical responses to speech-like stimuli in dyslexic adults. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14(5), 757–768. https://doi.org/10.1162/08989290260138654
Reynolds, J. H., Pasternak, T., & Desimone, R. (2000). Attention increases sensitivity of V4 neurons. Neuron, 26(3), 703–714. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0896-6273(00)81206-4
Richlan, F., Kronbichler, M., & Wimmer, H. (2011). Meta-analyzing brain dysfunctions in dyslexic children and adults. Neuroimage, 56(3), 1735–1742. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053811911001960
Rufener, K. S., Ruhnau, P., Heinze, H.-J., & Zaehle, T. (2017). Transcranial random noise stimulation (tRNS) shapes the processing of rapidly changing auditory information. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 11, 162. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2017.00162
Ruff, S., Marie, N., Celsis, P., Cardebat, D., & Démonet, J.-F. (2003). Neural substrates of impaired categorical perception of phonemes in adult dyslexics: An fMRI study. Brain and Cognition, 53(2), 331–334. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00137-4
Russo, N. M., Nicol, T. G., Zecker, S. G., Hayes, E. A., & Kraus, N. (2005). Auditory training improves neural timing in the human brainstem. Behavioural Brain Research, 156(1), 95–103.
Schilling, A., Tziridis, K., Schulze, H., & Krauss, P. (2020). The Stochastic Resonance model of auditory perception: A unified explanation of tinnitus development, Zwicker tone illusion, and residual inhibition. BioRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.27.011163
Schulte-Körne, G., Deimel, W., Bartling, J., & Remschmidt, H. (1999). The role of phonological awareness, speech perception, and auditory temporal processing for dyslexia. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 8, 28–34.
Simos, P., Diehl, R., Breier, J., Molis, M., Zouridakis, G., & Papanicolaou, A. (1998). MEG correlates of categorical perception of a voice onset time continuum in humans. Cognitive Brain Research, 7(2), 215–219. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0926641098000378?casa_token=9ZO1Gz2nAL4AAAAA:XheLRIg37t-lSyhspzsCqqG-I2kCQ7en0wtJoPPDR_mMjJONMes-pLrgEZh2br5AIdD-IvA
Skeide, M. A., Kirsten, H., Kraft, I., Schaadt, G., Müller, B., Neef, N., … Friederici, A. D. (2015). Genetic dyslexia risk variant is related to neural connectivity patterns underlying phonological awareness in children. NeuroImage, 118, 414–421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.06.024
Snowling, M. (1998). Dyslexia as a phonological deficit: Evidence and implications. Child Psychology and Psychiatry Review, 3(1), 4–11. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-3588.00201/abstract
Stephens, J. D. W., & Holt, L. L. (2011). A standard set of American-English voiced stop-consonant stimuli from morphed natural speech. Speech Communication, 53(6), 877–888. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SPECOM.2011.02.007
Tadel, F., Baillet, S., Mosher, J. C., Pantazis, D., & Leahy, R. M. (2011). Brainstorm: A user-friendly application for MEG/EEG analysis. Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience, 2011, 8.
Tallal, P. (1980). Auditory temporal perception, phonics, and reading disabilities in children. Brain and Language, 9(2), 182–198.
Taulu, S., Kajola, M., & Simola, J. (2004). Suppression of interference and artifacts by the Signal Space Separation Method. Brain Topography, 16, 269–275.
Taulu, S., & Simola, J. (2006). Spatiotemporal signal space separation method for rejecting nearby interference in MEG measurements. Physics in Medicine and Biology, 51(7), 1759.
Torgensen, J., Wagner, R., & Rashotte, C. (1999). Test of word reading efficiency (TOWRE). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed. Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=towre&btnG=&as_sdt=1%2C22&as_sdtp=#1
Travis, K., Leonard, M., & Chan, A. (2013). Independence of early speech processing from word meaning. Cerebral Cortex, 23(10), 2370–2379. Retrieved from http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/23/10/2370.short
Turkeltaub, P. E., & Branch Coslett, H. (2010). Localization of sublexical speech perception components. Brain and Language, 114(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BANDL.2010.03.008
Vandermosten, M., Boets, B., Luts, H., Poelmans, H., Golestani, N., Wouters, J., & Ghesquière, P. (2010). Adults with dyslexia are impaired in categorizing speech and nonspeech sounds on the basis of temporal cues. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(23), 10389.
Vandermosten, M., Boets, B., Luts, H., Poelmans, H., Wouters, J., & Ghesquière, P. (2011). Impairments in speech and nonspeech sound categorization in children with dyslexia are driven by temporal processing difficulties. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 32(2), 593–603. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2010.12.015
Vandermosten, M., Correia, J., Vanderauwera, J., Wouters, J., Ghesquière, P., & Bonte, M. (2020). Brain activity patterns of phonemic representations are atypical in beginning readers with family risk for dyslexia. Developmental Science, 23(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12857
Vellutino, F. R., Fletcher, J. M., Snowling, M. J., & Scanlon, D. M. (2004). Specific reading disability (dyslexia): What have we learned in the past four decades?. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(1), 2–40.
Visscher, P., Brown, M., McCarthy, M., & Yang, J. (2012). Five years of GWAS discovery. The American Journal Of, 90(1), 7–24. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002929711005337
Wagner, R. K., Torgesen, J. K., Rashotte, C. A., & Pearson, N. A. (1999). Comprehensive test of phonological processing: CTOPP. Austin, TX: Pro-ed.
Werker, J. F., & Tees, R. C. (1987). Speech perception in severely disabled and average reading children. Canadian Journal of Psychology/revue Canadienne De Psychologie, 41(1), 48.
Wiederholt, J., & Bryant, B. (2012). Gray Oral Reading Test- Fifth Edition (GORT-5). Pro-Ed.
Wolf, M., & Denckla, M. (2005). Rapid automatized naming and rapid alternating stimulus tests (RAN/RAS). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed. Retrieved from http://www.asha.org/SLP/assessment/Rapid-Automatized-Naming-and-Rapid-Alternating-Stimulus-Tests-(RAN-RAS).htm
Woodcock, R. (2011). Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests - (3rd ed.). Pearson.
Woodcock, R., McGrew, K., & Mather, N. (2001). Woodcock-Johnson® III NU Tests of Achievement. Retrieved from http://www.v-psyche.com/doc/IQ/Woodcock Johnson Achievement Test.doc
Yi, H. G., Leonard, M. K., & Chang, E. F. (2019). The Encoding of Speech Sounds in the Superior Temporal Gyrus. Neuron, 102(6), 1096–1110. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.NEURON.2019.04.023
Zuk, J., Perdue, M. V., Becker, B., Yu, X., Chang, M., Raschle, N. M., & Gaab, N. (2018). Neural correlates of phonological processing: Disrupted in children with dyslexia and enhanced in musically trained children. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 34, 82–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.DCN.2018.07.001
Acknowledgements
We thank our participants, the Athinoula A. Martinos Imaging Center at the McGovern Institute for Brain Research (MIT), and Atsushi Takahashi and Steve Shannon for data collection technical support. We also thank Marina G. Monsivais, Sehyr Khan, and Karolina Wade for scoring the behavioral data. This project was funded by the Halis Foundation for Dyslexia Research at MIT (to J.D.E.G.) and NIH Shared instrumentation grant (S10OD021569).
Funding
This project was funded by the Halis Foundation for Dyslexia Research at MIT (to J.D.E.G.), NIH Shared instrumentation grant (S10OD021569), and NIH F32-HD100064 (to OOP).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
TMC, SDB, OOP, and JDEG designed the study. JDEG and DP were responsible for overseeing the neuroimaging facility. TMC, SDB, OOP, and SM collected the data. TMC analyzed the data and wrote the manuscript. All authors were involved in data interpretation and manuscript editing. All authors approved the final version of the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.
Ethics approval
All behavioral assessment and neural imaging procedures were approved by the Institutional Review Board of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Consent to participate
All participants provided informed consent prior to participating in study activities.
Consent for publication
All authors approved the final version of the manuscript.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Centanni, T.M., Beach, S.D., Ozernov-Palchik, O. et al. Categorical perception and influence of attention on neural consistency in response to speech sounds in adults with dyslexia. Ann. of Dyslexia 72, 56–78 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-021-00241-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-021-00241-1